英语-语法总结全集

语法总结全集

名词和主谓一致

一、 名词的分类

    英语中名词主要可以分为可数名词和不可数名词。

1．可数名词

    可数名词一般都有单复数。单数时，名词前可加不定冠词a/an；复数时，前面可加数词，名词本身要改成复数形式。

    可数名词的复数有规则和不规则两种变化。规则的名词，只要在单数名词之后加“s”，“es”或去“y”加“ies”就行，如：an umbrella, twelve umbrellas；a factory, three factories。不规则的名词变化则要靠积累记忆，如：a mouse, ten mice；a policeman, six policemen。

    有少数可数名词，如sheep，works（工厂），Chinese等，它们的单复数同形：a sheep, four sheep；a chemical works, five chemical works。

    此外，还有一些可数名词只有复数形式，如clothes，trousers，cattle，police，people(人，人民)等。

    英语名词中还有一些合成词，它们的复数形式有三种可能：1）后面的部分变成复数形式：grown-ups，boy students，grandchildren。2）前面的部分变成复数形式：passers-by，lookers-on，sons-in-law。3）前、后都变成复数形式：men doctors，women drivers。

2．不可数名词

    不可数名词没有单复数的变化，前面也不能加a/an，或数词。但是我们可以用量词来表示不可数名词的数量，单复数表现在量词上，如：a piece of paper；two pieces of paper。

    在有些情况下，不可数名词也可用a/an，表“一种”、“某种”的意思，如have a wonderful time，receive a good education，be made into a fine paper。

    有时为了表示量大，不可数名词的后面也可加“s”，如sands，ashes，waters等。

    但是我们在学习不可数名词的时候，特别要记住英语中有一些名词，它们无论在什么情况下，前面都不能用a/an，后面也不可加“s”，如weather，information，等。

3．有的名词既可是可数名词，也可是不可数名词

    英语中有相当一部分的名词，既可以是可数，也可以是不可数，它们的意义有时略有不同，有时则完全不同。如：difficulty, success, time, work，paper，glass，等。

4．用于表示可数与不可数名词的数量“多”“少”的常用词和词组

    跟可数名词连用的如：few, a few, many。

    跟不可数名词连用的如：little, a little, much。

    可数与不可数都能用的是：a lot of , plenty of。

二、主谓一致

1．通常被看作单数的主语部分

1）不定式、动名词和主语从句。

  eg.. To see is to believe.

     Seeing is believing.

     What he said was different from what he did.

2）表示“时间”“距离”“金钱数量”的名词。

  eg. Twenty years is quite a long time.

    10 kilometers doesn’t seem to be a long distance to Mira.

    300 dollars is too much for this old coin.

3）数学式子。

  eg. Two plus five is seven.

4）书报杂志、国家、单位的名字。

  eg. The Times is published daily.

     The United States is a big country.

5）前面用a kind of, a sort of或this kind of, this sort of等词组的名词。

  eg. This kind of tree(s) often grows well in warm weather.

6）代词either, neither作主语。

  eg. Either of the plans is good.

     Neither of them was carrying a weapon.

7）many a/ more than one 加单数名词，或one out of加复数名词作主语。

  eg. Many a young man has tried and failed.

     More than one employee has been dismissed.

    One out of ten thousand computers was infected with the virus.

2．通常被看作复数的主语部分

1）一些只有复数的名词如clothes, trousers, police等。

  eg. These trousers are dirty.

但要注意比较：A new pair of trousers is what you need。

2）代词both作主语。

  eg. Both of them have received high education.

3．需要进行分析才能确定的主语部分

1）代词all, some,作主语。

  所代的名词是可数名词，就看作复数；是不可数名词，就看作单数。

  eg. All is ready. (= Everything is ready.)

     All are present. (= All the people/students... are present.)

2）a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some, any, 20% of, half of...等词组作主语。

  所修饰的名词是可数名词，就看作复数；是不可数名词，就看作单数。

  eg. 70% of the surface of the earth is covered with water.

     90% of the graduates from the high school go to university.

3）关系代词who, which, that作主语。

  由先行词决定单、复数。

  eg. The student who is talking with the principal is Tom.

     The students who have chosen physics will have a test tomorrow.

  但要注意one of ...与only one of...所修饰的先行词。

  eg. He is one of the students in our class who have been to Beijing.

     He is the only one of the students who has been to London.

4）一些表示集体意义的名词如family, team, class等。

  当这些名词强调的是一个整体时，看作单数；当它们强调的是这个集体中的成员时，看作复数。

  eg. Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.

     My family are all early risers.

4．出现在句首，用连词或介词连接的两个名词或词组

1）用both...and...连接的两个名词看作复数。

  Both Kate and Jean are football players.

2）用or, either...or..., neither...nor..., not only...but also...连接的两个名词，由靠近动词的名词决定单复数。

  Either you or I am to go.

  Not only the students but also the teacher has to observe the rules.

3）用as well as, (together) with, like, besides, but, except等连接的两个名词，由第一个名词决定单复数。

  eg. His eyebrows as well as his hair are now white.

     No one but these two peasants has been there.

实际上这些都是介词短语提前，不是并列的主语。

4）用and连接的两个名词有几种情况：

  a)看作复数。

    eg. Tom and Mary are primary pupils.

  b) 在有every ... and every ..., each ... and each ... 的时候；或用and连接的两个名词表示的是一件东西或一个人时，看作单数。

  eg. Every boy and every girl in our country has the right to go to school.

    Bread and butter is what he eats for breakfast every day.

高考真题试析：

01年23题

As a result of destroying the forests, a large ____ of desert ____ covered the land.

  A. number; has B. quantity; has C. number; have D. quantity; have

选B。因为第一格后的名词desert是不可数名词，所以A、C两项排除；又desert做主语，谓语要用单数形式。

02年（春）26题

He is the only one of the students who ____ a winner of scholarship for three years.

  A. is B. are C. have been D. has been

选D。因为定语从句的先行词是由only one of修饰，所以应看成单数；另外后面有时间状语for three years，所以用现在完成时态。

03年28题

 The young dancers looked so charming in their beautiful clothes that we took ____ pictures of them.

  A. many of B. masses of C. the number of D. a large amount of

选B。 空格后面的名词是复数，所以不可以选D，而many后不跟of用，所以A项排除；the number of的确是放在可数名词复数的前面，但意思是“......的数量”，不符合题意。

03年（春）28题

 Where and when to go for the on-salary holiday ____ yet.

  A. are not decided B. have not been decided

  C. is not being decided D. has not been decided

选D。此句是不定式做主语，看成单数。而C项的时态不对，所以只有D。

04年（春）30.题

No one in the department but Tom and I ____ that the director is going to resign.

  A. knows B. know C. have known D. am to know

选A。谓语动词应该跟no one一致，所以选A。

05年（春）28题

We have only a sofa, a table and a bed in our new apartment. We need to buy ____ more furniture.

  A. any B. many C. little D. some

选D。后面的名词是furniture，不可数。而且整句的意思是“要买些家具”,是肯定意义，所以选D。

05年（春）42题

Telephone messages for the manager ____ on her desk but she didn’t notice them.

  A. were left B. was left C. was leaving D. were leaving

选A。句子的主语是messages，是复数，另外它与动词“留（在桌上）”的关系是被动。

05年31题

Professor Smith, along with his assistants, ____ on the project day and night to meet the deadline.

  A. work B. working C. is working D. are working

选C。谓语的单复数跟Professor Smith一致，应该是单数。

动词的时态与语态

一、动词的时态

  英语的动词可以有十六种变化，但现在常用的是十二种，其中有九种是高中学生必须掌握的，还有三种只要理解。现以动词do为例，十二种时态的形式列表如下：

	一般	进行	完成	完成进行
现在	do/does	is/am/are doing	have/has done	have/has been doing
过去	did	was/were doing	had done	*had been doing
将来	shall/will do	*shall/will be doing	*shall/will have done
过去将来	would do

（打星号的为理解项目）

1．一般现在时态

 A)意义：现阶段经常反复发生的动作或现在的状态。

  eg. He gets up at six every morning.

     There is a big tree in the back yard.

 B)常用的时间状语：always, often, usually, sometimes, seldom, never, every day, once a week,等。

 C)表示一种真理、自然规律等，在间接引语中也仍然用一般现在时态。

  eg. The scientist explained that the earth goes round the sun, but no one believed him then.

 D)在时间、条件等状语从句中，代替将来时。

  eg. If he is not busy, he will come to the party tomorrow.

 E)注意第三人称单数时，动词后面要加“s”。

2． 一般过去时态

 A)意义：过去的动作或状态。注意，即使是刚刚发生的事情，时间非常短，也要用过去时态。如：Why! It’s you—Mary! I didn’t know you were here!

 B)常用的时间状语：yesterday, last week, 3 years ago, just now, 等。

 C)动词过去式的规则变化（加ed）和不规则变化。

3．一般将来时态

A)意义：将来要发生的动作或状态。

B)常用的时间状语：tomorrow, next moth, in two weeks, 等。

C)除了用shall/will之外的将来表达法：

 a) is/am/are going to do，意为“打算、准备、马上就要”。

  eg. It’s going to rain.

 b) is/am/are to do，意为“（计划好/安排好）要......”

  eg. The new underground railway is to be opened to traffic next year.

 c)is/am/are about to do，意为“马上就要”。

  eg. Hurry up! The plane is about to take off.

 d) 某些动词（主要是一些表示位置移动的动词）可用一般现在时态或现在进行时态表示将来的动作。

  eg. The train leaves for Beijing at 8:30 this evening.

     He is going to London next week.

4．现在进行时态

A)意义：表示在说话的同时或最近一个阶段正在发生的动作。

 B)常用的时间状语：now, these days, at present, at the moment, 等。

 C)有时可以和always, constantly, forever等时间状语连用，表示说话人的某中特殊的感情。

    eg. He is always thinking of others.

       Mrs Smith is constantly quarrelling with her neighbours.

 D)有些瞬间动词可以用进行时态表示“马上就要......”

   eg. The old man is dying.

 E)英语中有些表示状态、感觉、心理活动的动词没有进行时态，如know, understand, believe, like, love, see, hear, seem, 等等。

5．过去进行时态

 A)意义：表示过去某个时刻正在做的动作。

 B)常用的时间状语：this time yesterday, at 9:00 last night, 等。

 C)有些动词（主要是一些表示位置移动等的动词和瞬间动词）的过去进行时态可以表示过去将来的意义。

    eg. I was told that she was leaving for Australia the next morning.

*6．将来进行时态

A)意义：表示将来某个时刻正在发生的动作。

 B)常用的时间状语：this time tomorrow, at 9:00 next Sunday morning, 等。

   eg. What will you be doing at 9:00 on June 7next year?

7．现在完成时态

A)意义：a. 表示过去某个时刻开始，一直持续到现在的动作或状态。（只有部分延续性动词，如live, work, study, 等可以表示这一意义）

           eg. I have lived in Shanghai since I was born.

               He has been married for half a year.

        b. 表示过去做过的某一个动作对现在的影响。

           eg. I have seen this film. It’s fantastic!

              Jack is playing video games, because he has done his homework.

 B)常用的时间状语：a. since 1990, for 9 years,等。

                   b. already, yet, just, now, this week, never, ever, so far, up till now, lately, in the past/last few years, 等。

 C)b组所表示的现在完成时态与过去时态的区别：虽然现在完成时态b组表示的动作也是发生在过去，但它强调的是与现在的关系，而过去时态只表示过去发生的动作，叙述一个事实。试比较：

  eg. 1) He went to Beijing two days ago.

       He has gone to Beijing.

     2) Henry lost his mobile phone yesterday, but found it later.

       Henry has lost his mobile phone again.

D)瞬间动词要表示“一直到现在”，不能直接用“完成时态加for”的方式，必须用其他句型。

  eg. 他离开上海已经三天了。

      He has left Shanghai. He left three days ago.

      He has been away from Shanghai for three days.

      It is three days since he left Shanghai.

8．过去完成时态

A)意义：表示过去某个时刻之前所做的动作，即“过去的过去”。所以一般要用过去完成时态的话，句子中或上下文一定有一个过去时态的动作或时间状语做比较，才能用。

  eg. He had learned English before he went to Canada.

 B)常用的时间状语：by the end of last year 等。

 C)在用间接引语时，主句的动词是过去时态，用来替换直接引语中的过去时态或现在完成时态。

  eg. He asked the girl, “Where have you been?”

→ He asked the girl where she had been.

     He said, “I cleaned the classroom yesterday.”

→ He said that he had cleaned the room the day before.

 D)有些动词（如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等）的过去完成时态可表示过去事实上没有实现的希望、计划等。

  eg. I had hoped to attend the party, but I was too busy.

*9．将来完成时态

 A)意义：表示在将来某个时刻之前将会完成的动作。

 B)常用的时间状语：by the end of next year等。

   eg. You will have studied English for 10 years by the time you finish high school.

10．现在完成进行时态

 A)意义：表示一个动作从过去开始，一直持续到现在。（同现在完成时态的第一种意义）

 B)常用时间状语：since ..., for ..., so far, up till now 等。

 C)现在完成进行时态与现在完成时态的比较：

   只有现在完成时态的第一种意义的那些动词，它们的现在完成与现在完成进行两种时态表示的意义相同，可以互换使用。

   eg. I have studied here for 3 years.  = I have been studying here for 3 years.

   而其他的一些动词，使用两种时态，意义就各不相同了。

   试比较： The little boy has read the text.（小男孩已经读过课文了。）

            The little boy has been reading the text.（小男孩一直在读课文。）

   试翻译：1）从上午九点开始我就一直在做功课。

               I have been doing my homework since 9 in the morning.

           2）今天的功课我已经做好了。

               I have done today’s homework.

*11．过去完成进行时态

意义：表示从过去某一时间开始的动作一直持续了一段时间再结束。（结束的时间点也在过去）

  eg. He had been searching for the watch for a half hour when we came back.

12．过去将来时态

 意义：表示从过去某一时间看将要发生的动作或状态，一般多用在间接引语中。

  eg. He told me that he would read the book a second time.

二、动词的语态

  英语中的动词可分为及物动词和不及物动词，以及系动词。及物动词有主动语态和被动语态；不及物动词或动词词组（如happen, belong to, take place等）和系动词（如become, seem, sound, look, taste,等）没有被动语态。

1．以动词do为例，被动语态的各种时态的表达方式如下表：

	一般	进行	完成
现在	is/am/are done	is/am/are being done	have/has been done
过去	was/were done	was/were being done	had been done
将来	shall/will be done		shall/will be done
过去将来	would be done

  各种时态在助动词be上表示，动作由过去分词体现。

2．注意在动词词组变被动的时候，原来词组中的介词或副词不要漏掉。

  eg. The villagers took good care of the wounded soldier.

     → The soldier was taken good care of by the villagers.

3．有些动词既是及物动词，又是不及物动词，这些动词比较少用被动语态。

  eg. We begin our class at 8:00 every morning. → ? Our class is begun ... ?

     Our class begins at 8:00 every morning.

4．有少数动词或动词词组可用主动形式，表示（从中文里我们所感觉的）被动意义。

  eg. The book sells poorly.

     His translation reads better than yours.

     Who is to blame for the accident?

高考真题试析：

02年23题

 He will have learned English for eight years by the time he ____ from the university next year.

  A. will graduate B. will have graduated

  C. graduates B. is to graduate

选C。虽然句子的时间状语是next year，但是“他从大学毕业”是以by the time引出的状语从句，在状语从句中，用现在时态代替将来时态。

02年24题

 I feel it is your husband who ____ for the spoiled child.

  A. is to blame B. is going to blame C. is to be blamed D. should blame

选A。因为词组be to blame for这一词组用主动形式来表示中文中“该为某事受到责备”的被动意义。

02年29题

 “Will you go skiing with me this winter vacation?”  “It ____.”

  A. all depend B. all depends C. is all depended D. is all depending

选B。It all depends.是习惯说法，意思为“要看情况而定了”，不用将来时态，也不用被动语态。

03年32.题

I thought Jim would say something about his school report, but he ____ it.

  A. doesn’t mention B. hadn’t mentioned C. didn’t mention D. hasn’t mentioned

选C。从前面一句I though可以看出是过去时态，用but连接的两个并列句中的动作是发生在同一时间，所以后面的动词也应该是过去时态。

04年29题

 The first use of atomic weapons was in 1945, and their power ____ increased enormously ever since.

  A. is B. was C. has been D. had been

选C。因为句子的时间状语是ever since，意即“自从那时起”（“那时”指前面讲到的1945年），所以是现在完成时态。

04年30题

 The number of deaths from heart disease will be reduced greatly if people ____ to eat more fruit and vegetables.

  A. persuade B. will persuade C. be persuaded D. are persuaded

选D。因为“人们”和“说服”是动宾关系，所以用被动语态。

05年30题

 More than a dozen students in that school ____ abroad to study medicine last year.

  A. sent B. were sent C had sent D. had been sent

选B。因为学生是被送到国外学医的，所以要用被动语态，而句末 时间状语表明要用过去时态。

06年27题

 Send my regards to your lovely wife when you ____ home.

  A. wrote B. will write C. have written D. write

选D。这是祈使句中的状语从句的动词，所以用一般现在时态代替将来时态。

06年32题

 When he turned professional at the age of 11, Mike ____ to become a world champion by his coach and parents.

  A. expected B. was expecting C. was expected D. would be expected

选C。根据整个句子的意思，可以判断，是他的教练和父母期盼马克成为世界冠军，所以用被动语态，时间在他7岁的时候，显然是过去时态。

07年28.题

“Did you tidy your room?”

“No, I was going to tidy my room but I ____ visitors.”

  A. had B. have C. have had D. will have

选A。根据前面的疑问句，可判断谈论的是过去的事情，而且回答的前半句也说明了时态：“我正要打扫屋子，但我有客人来访了”是过去时态。

07年30题

 With the help of high technology, more and more new substances ____ in the past years.

  A. discovered B. have discovered

C. had been discovered D. have been discovered

选D。全句的时间状语是in the past years，是典型的现在完成时态的时间状语，而且“发现”与“新的物质材料”是动宾关系。

情态动词

一、can, may, must

    根据意思与习惯用法，我们可以把can, may, must分成以下两组用法，方便学习与掌握。

1．第一组用法见下表（主要在初中的时候我们所掌握的）：

	词义	肯定	否定	疑问	过去式
can	能、会	can	can’t	Can...?	could
may	可以	may	mustn’t/may not	May...?	might
must	必须	must	needn’t	Must...?	must/had to

A) can

 a) can的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：

eg. Computers can do a lot of things for us.

     Money cannot buy everything.

Can you speak French?

I could run very fast when I was young.

 b) can与be able to

can与be able to的意思相近，经常可以互换使用，但是be able to除了有一般现在与过去时态之外，还有将来、完成等时态，所以要表示将来能够或已经能够做什么事，就要用be able to。

  eg. You will be able to communicate with foreigners fluently if you finish the course.

     The baby has been able to one or two simple sentences.

    在用过去式的时候，could与was able to的意思不同，could表示的是“当时能够做某事”的意思，而was/were able to表示的是“当时能够，并且成功地做到了”的意思。

    试比较：

    Einstein was able to flee Germany when Hitler came into power.

    I could pass the examination, but I was too careless.

 c) could在疑问句时用意表示请求，意义同can，是一种比较客气的表达方式。

  eg. Could you give me a hand?

B) may

a) may的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：

  eg. You may choose anyone here you like.

     —May I leave now?      —Yes, of course/Sure. Go ahead.

                            —No, you mustn’t. （注：口语中也能用cannot。）

I was told that the boss might come to the office before 9

b)mustn’t与may not.

    mustn’t一般是说话人表示“不可以”或“禁止”，而may not一般是指按规定“不允许”的意思。试比较：

     You mustn’t leave the bike here.

     The sign on the wall reads, “Visitors may not feed the animals in the zoo.”

  c) may可放在句首，表示“祝愿”。

   eg. May our friendship last forever.

d) might有时用在疑问句中，只是一种比may更客气一点，而非过去式。

   eg. Might I have a few words with you, sir?

C) must

  a) must的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：

   eg. Everyone must obey the rules.

      —Must I finish the work today?  —Yes, you must.

                                  —No, you needn’t/don’t have to.

      He told me he must/had to see a doctor tomorrow morning.

  b) must与have to

    用must更强调主观上“必须”，而have to 更强调客观上的“不得不”。

    在间接引语中，主句动词是过去式时，用had to多，但must也可以用。

    have to有现在、过去和将来三种时态。

  c) must有时可以表示“偏偏”“非...不可”的意思。

   eg. Why must you make such a mess when the visitors are coming?

2．第二组用法见下表：

	词义	肯定	否定	疑问	过去式	进行式
can	可能/一定	/	cannot	Can...?	can’t have done	can’t be doing
may	可能	may	may not	/	may have dong	may be doing
must	一定	must	/	/	must have done	must be doing

a) can, may, must的第二种用法，是用来表示说话人的一种推测。其中may与must的区别其实是说话人对可能性大小所做判断的区别，觉得可能性大，就用must，可能性小，就用may。而can与may, must是肯定、否定、疑问分工的不同。

  现在时举例：

—Can Tom be in the classroom?

     —Yes, he must be there.

     或—Yes, he may be there, but I’m not quite sure.

     或—No, he can’t be there, because he hasn’t come to school today.

  过去时举例：

    I must have been asleep. I didn’t hear your footsteps.

    David became angry at the meeting. He may have misunderstood what I meant.

    James can’t have forgotten the examination yesterday. There must have been something wrong with him, I believe.

 b)表示可能性的否定句中有时也可用may，但意思与cannot有所不同。may not一般解释为“可能不”，而cannot解释为“不可能”

 c)表示可能性，也可以用might和could，但并非may和can的过去式，而是表示说话人觉得可能性实在是比较小了，有虚拟的意味。跟may与can一样，might用在肯定句，could用在否定句和疑问句。might do的过去式是might have done，could的过去式是could have done。

  eg. —Could it be Susan at the door?  —Yes, it might be her.（现在口语中也可用could be回答）

 *d) could have done也可以用在肯定句里，表示过去有这种可能，但事实上没有发生（虚拟语气的用法）。

  eg. It was dangerous to do so. You could have killed yourself!

二、shall, will, would

1．用在一般疑问句中，表示征求对方的意见。第一、第三人称用shall，第二人称用will或would。

  eg. Shall turn on the TV?

     Shall my brother go with us?

     Will/Would you do me a favour?

2．shall与第二、第三人称连用，用在肯定、否定句中，表示“命令、允诺、警告、威胁，及说话人的意愿和决心”。

  eg. You shall do it at once!

     He shall have the money when he finish his work on time.

     You shall fail if you don’t work hard.

     If Shylock breaks the law, everything he has shall be taken away from him.

3．will在陈述句中可用于任何人称，表示“意愿、意志、决心”等。有时也可用在条件句中。

  eg. I will help you at any time if necessary.

     The captain will land you safe in Liverpool, if you will be man.

4．will和would可以表示习惯性反复发生的动作，或在某一条件下，一定回发生的动作。这时，will一般指“现在”，would一般指“过去”。

  eg. Oil will float on water, because it is lighter.

    He would take a walk after supper when he lived here.

  上面例句中的would可以用used to来替换。used to也表示“过去常常”，但used to还隐含了“现在不再这样了”的意思。而would则没有这种意思。

  eg. He used to smoke, but he has given it up now.

三、should/ought to

1．可以表示一种必要性、义务，解为“应当、应该”。可以与任何人称连用，并用在肯定、否定、疑问句中。但疑问句时用should更多一些。

   eg. You should/ought to pay more attention to your spelling.

2．可以表示一种推测，解为“应该是”。用于任何人称的肯定、否定、疑问句。它还有进行和完成两种形式：should/ought to be doing（对现在正在进行的动作的推测）和should/ought to have done（表示与过去的事实相反，“本来应该”的意思）。

  eg. They should be here by now.

     The students should be doing the experiment in the lab.

     You should have come here ten minutes earlier.

3．should有时可以表示说话人惊讶的感觉，解为“竟然”。

  eg. I have never imagined that he should say so at the meeting.

四、need和dare

    need和dare两词，都既可作为情态动词，又可作为实意动词，所以复习的重点是分清在句子中它们分别是哪种动词。

1．need解为“需要、必须”。

 A) 作为情态动词时，多用于疑问句和否定句。

    eg. —Need I do it again?  —No, you needn’t.

   注意：与Must I do it again?的意思相近，但用need问，问的人一般希望得到的是否定的回答；而用must问，问话的人一般希望得到的是肯定回答。

 B) 作为实意动词，可用于各种句型，是及物动词，可以跟名词做宾语。

    eg. We need another five workers to do the work.

 C) needn’t have done与didn’t need to do的区别

    needn’t have done和didn’t need to do分别是情态动词用法与实意动词用法的过去形式，但是所表示的意义不同。needn’t have done意思是“本来不必”，言下之意是“做了不必要做的事了”；而didn’t need to do意思是“当时不必要”，言下之意是“当时不必要，因此可能就没有做”。

  试比较：She was too nervous to reply, but fortunately she didn’t need to say anything.

            她紧张得无法答复，但幸运的是，她那时什么也不必说。

          You needn’t have mentioned it to him, because he had been told everything before.

            你本来不必跟他提这件事的，之前已经有人把一切都讲给他听了。

2．dare解为“敢”。

 A) 作为情态动词时，多用于疑问句和否定句。

   eg. Dare you say that to your boss?

      The little boy dare not face his teacher.

   但是dare的固定词组“I dare say...”，用在肯定句中。

   eg. He’ll come again, I dare say.

   注意：dare作为情态动词时，它的过去式是dared。

   eg. They dared not laugh in front of their manager.

 B)作为实意动词，dare可以用在各种句型里。

   但是注意在否定句里，有时后面的不定式的to可以省略。

   eg. They didn’t dare (to) laugh in front of their manager.

高考真题试析：

01年34题

 You can’t imagine that a well-behaved gentleman ____ be so rude to a lady.

  A. might B. need C. should D. would

选C。这里的should作“竟然”解，表示说话人的惊讶。

01年（春）27题

 Mr. Bush is on time for everything. How ____ it be that he was late for the opening ceremony?

  A. can B. should C. may D. must

选A。因为在本句里的can用在疑问句中，意思是“可能”。全句的意思是“布什先生每件事都是准时的，他怎么可能在开幕式时迟到呢？

02年（春）28题

 Oh, I’m not feeling well in the stomach. I ____ so much fried chicken just now.

  A. shouldn’t eat B. mustn’t have eaten

  C. shouldn’t have eaten D. mustn’t eat

选C。根据上下文，这里表示的是“本不应该吃这么多的炸鸡”。所以shouldn’t have eaten是正确选项。

03年（春）24题

 My English-Chinese dictionary has disappeared. Who ____ have taken it?

  A. should B. must C. could D. would

选C。这是对过去事实的一种推测，must只能用在肯定句里，could是用在疑问和否定句里，所以选could。

04年28题

 Children under 12 years of age in that country ____ be under adult supervision when in a public library.

  A. must B. may C. can D. need

选A。根据整个句子的意思，这里用must（必须）最恰当。

04年（春）29题

 You might just as well tell the manufacturer that male customers ____ not like the design of the furniture.

  A. must B. shall C. may D. need

选C。在此句中，may not解释为“可能不”。全句的意思是“你最好告诉生产商，男性顾客可能不惜换这种家具的设计。”

05年27题

 There ____ be any difficulty about passing the road test since you have practised a lot in the driving school.

  A. mustn’t B. shan’t C. shouldn’t D. needn’t

选C。因为整句的意思是：“既然你在驾驶学校练得很多，那么通过路考应该不会有什么困难了。”这里的should是一种推测。而must表示推测时（解为“一定”），一般只用于肯定句，否定时要用can’t。

05年（春）29题

 According to the local regulations, anyone who intends to get a driver’s licence ____ take an eye test.

  A. can B. must C. would D. may

选B。这里must的意思是“必须”，正和题意。

06年26题

 Black holes ____ not be seen directly, so determining the number of them is a tough task.

  A. can B. should C. must D. need

选A。本句的意思是“黑洞不可能直接看得到，所以要确定黑洞的数量是一件棘手的事情。”要表示可能性的时候，must只能用于肯定，can才是用于否定。

06年（春）26题

 You know he is not going to let us leave early if we ____ get the work done.

  A. can’t B. may not C. shouldn’t D. mustn’t

选A。此句用can’t，意思是“不能够”。

07年29题

  —“Guess what! I have got A for my term paper.”

  —“Great! You ____ read widely and put a lot of work into it.”

  A. must B. should C. must have D. should have

选C。这是对过去事实的推测，must have done的意思就是“过去一定......”。

07年（春）27题

 The boss has given everyone a special holiday, so we ____ go to work tomorrow.

  A. can’t B. mustn’t C. needn’t D. shouldn’t

选C。needn’t意思是“不必”正和题意。

代词

一、人称代词、物主代词和反身代词

1．人称代词的主格、宾格和所有格

  作主语时用主格，做宾语和表语时用宾格，作定语时用所有格。

  形容词性的所有格和名词性的所有格：如my和mine，your和yours等。

      eg. Your school is so different from ours (= our school).

2．英语中第一、第二、第三人称代词在句子中的排列次序：单数时为you, he and I；复数时为we, you and they。

3．it用于指人的情况：

  A) —Who is it/that speaking?  —It’s Mary speaking.

  B) —What’s wrong with the baby? —It’s crying loudly.

4．双重所有格的用法

  在英语中经常会碰到双重所有格的情况，如a friend of mine，the invention of his等，这种表达法的意思与my friend, his invention基本相同，只有细微的差别。

  另外，名词也有双重所有格的表达法，如a friend of my father’s, the invention of Professor Brown’s等。

5．在表示宾语的身体部位的名词前，一般用定冠词the代替所有格。

  试比较：The policeman caught the thief by the arm.

          The young lady carried a small baby in her arm.

6．We students与Our students的区别

  We students中文为“我们学生”，“学生”是“我们”的同位语，用这一词语的时候，说话人是学生。而Our students其实是“我们的学生”，说话人不是学生。当然，用We students的时候，We students必须是主语，如果是宾语，则用us students。

  eg. We students should learn more than book knowledge at school.

     Good teachers always bear us students in mind.

7．反身代词的用法

  A)作宾语

    eg. We must learn to adjust ourselves to the new situation.

    注意反身代词与代词宾格作宾语的区别：

     eg. Jane’s mother stared at her in the mirror. （Jane的母亲望着镜子中的Jane。）

        Jane’s mother stared at herself in the mirror. （Jane的母亲望着镜子中的自己。）

    试译：请好好保重。

           Please take good care of yourself.

          在幼儿园里，老师会很好地照顾你的。

           Teachers will take good care of you in the kindergarten.

  B)用作同位语，强调主语或宾语

  eg. I myself would never do such a thing. (= I would never do such a thing myself.)

     We talked with the mayor himself.

  C)反身代词的一些词组

    by oneself 单独，独自  eg. He finished the task by himself.

    for oneself 为了自己   eg. She cooked a meal for herself.

    between ourselves 就我们之间     eg. This is a secret between ourselves.

    teach oneself sth. 自学... eg. Lenin taught himself English when he was in Siberia.

    seat oneself = be seated  eg. He seated himself at the back of the room.

    devote oneself to = be devoted to   献身于

二、指示代词

1．this, these经常指下面要讲的东西，而that, those经常指前面讲过的东西。

  eg. He always begins his story like this: “Once upon a time, there was a ...”

     He was ill. That’s why he didn’t come.

2．that与those可以指代前面提到的名词，经常在比较级的句子中出现。

  eg. The boy told me his story and also that of his sister’s.

     Weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.

     The products produced this year are different from those produced last year.

3．this与that可用作副词，放在形容词或副词前，意思相当于so。

  eg. I didn’t expect the exam would be this easy.

     I can only go that far, to the riverside.

三、不定代词

1．one

  one只能指代可数名词的单数形式，它与it的不同之处是it代替前面所提到的名词，是特指的，也就是前面提到的同一件东西，而one代替前面所提到的名词，但它是一种泛指，即是这一类东西中的任何一个。试比较：

  I have lost my cell phone and I have to buy one (= a cell phone).

  I have bought a new cell phone. I bought it in Hong Kong.

2．any, some, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody, anything, something

 A)any一般用在否定句，疑问句与条件状语从句中。

   eg. —Have you any questions?  —No, I haven’t any.

      Please buy some apples if there are any.

   any也可以用在肯定句中，表示“任何一个”的意思。

    eg. This is common knowledge. Any pupil knows it.

 B)some一般用在肯定句中，但可以用在一种表示邀请的疑问句中。

    eg. Would you like to have some drinks? (= Have some drinks, please.)

       试比较：Have you bought any drinks?

   some有时还可以解释为“某个”的意思，相当于certain。

    eg. I have read it in some magazine. (= in a certain magazine.)

 C)anyone, someone, anybody, somebody都是指人，anything, something都是指物。无论是指人还是指物，都是单数性质。

3．another与the other等的用法见下表：

	单数	复数
泛指	another = another one	other ones = others
特指	the other = the other one	the other ones =the others

  eg. I don’t like the colour of the shirt. Will you please show me another (one/ shirt)?

     There were only two shirts left in the shop. I didn’t like the blue one. So I took the other.

     We have been told that only three of us have passed the exam, and the others have to do it again next week.

     There are many children in the park. Some are singing, others are dancing.

4．each与every

  each相当于形容词或名词，而every相当与形容词。

  each指两个或两个以上的“每一个”，every指三个或三个以上的“每一个”。

  用each的时候，常可强调“各不相同”，而用every时，常强调“全部都”。

  eg. Each of the hats cost 30 dollars. (= The hats cost 30 dollars each.)

There are shops on each side of the street.

     At the meeting, each student expressed his or her own idea.

     Every one of the students agreed with me.

5．everyone与every one

   everyone只指人，同everybody。

   every one既可指物，也可指人，指人时只用在of短语之前。

   eg. No one is absent today. Everyone is here.

      All the pictures are beautiful. I like every one of them.

6．all与both；any与either；none与neither

  这三对代词的区别是一样的，在与指代数量上的不同。all, any, none都是指代三个或三个以上，both, either, neither都是指代两者。

  eg. All the students like my idea.

     Both his parents are ordinary workers.

     There are many books in our library. You can borrow any of them.

     I have two dictionaries. You may take either one.

     None of my classmates will go there with me.

     Neither of his two brothers could help him during that time.

7．no one, nobody, nothing和none。

  no one = nobody，都是指人；nothing指物；none既可指人，也可指物。

  no one, nobody, nothing都是单数性质，none作主语，如指代不可数名词，看作单数，如果指代可数名词，既可看作单数，也可看作复数。

  在作否定回答时，用none回答有针对性的人或东西，用no one, nobody, nothing回答无针对性的人或东西。

  eg. —Who did you see in the office?  —No one/ Nobody.

     —Is there anything in the room?  —Nothing..

     —Is there any water in your bottle?  —None.

     —How many students have been chosen in your class this time?  —None.

8．not与all, both, every连用

not与all, both, every连用时都是部分否定，意思是“不全是”。

eg. All that glitters is not gold.

   Not every student can solve the problem.

   Both of his parents are not at home, today.

  试析：

    Don’t spit ____ (anywhere/ everywhere).

高考真题试析：

01年22题

 Both teams were in hard training; ____ was willing to lose the game.

  A. either B. neither C. another D. the other

选B。因为在句首有both一词，表明只有两支队伍，所以后面要选neither。说明两支队伍都不想输。

01年33题

 In fact ____ is a hard job for the police to keep order in an important football match.

  A. this B. that C. there D. it

选D。这里用it作形式主语，真实主语是后面的不定式。

01年（春）24题

 Some of the wheat is from Canada. What about ____?

  A. another B. the other C. others D. the rest

选D。因为空格中要指代的是前面说到的小麦，是不可数名词，another，the other与others就都不能用。而the rest既可指可数名词，也可指不可数名词，意思也是“剩下的”。

03年（春）26题

 Equipped with modern facilities, today’s libraries differ greatly from ____.

  A. those of the past B. the past C. which of the past D. these past

选A。因为只有those可以指代前文中的复数名词libraries。

04年26题

 I had to buy ____ these books because I didn’t know which one was the best.

  A. both B. none C. neither D. all

选D。从句子的最后一个单词best可以知道，书起码有三本。另外根据全句的意思，是要买书，所以选all。

04年（春）25题

 Some of the stamps belong to me, while the rest are ____.

  A. him and her B. his and hers C. his and her D. him and hers

选B。因为此处要用的是一个所有格，且后面没有跟名词，所以B是正确选项。

05年26题

 No progress was made in the trade talk as neither side would accept the conditions of ____.

  A. others B. the other C. either D. another

选B。从句子中的neither可以看出，谈判是在双方间进行。那么各方都不能接受对方的条件，没有第三方了。所以用the other。

05年（春）26题

 My daughter often makes a schedule to get ____ reminded of what she is to do in the day.

  A. herself B. her C. she D. hers

选A。因为根据句子的意思，“我的女儿”做个日程表是要提醒她自己，所以要用反身代词。

06年29题

 I made so many changes in my composition that only I could read it. To ____ else, it was hard to make out.

  A. none B. everyone C. someone D. anyone

选D。To anyone else的意思是“对于其他任何人来说”。其余的选项都说不通。

06年（春）27题

 Both sides have accused ____ of breaking the contract.

  A. another B. the other C. neither D. each

选B。这道题同01年的22题和05年的26题，前面有了both，说明只有双方，大家都指责对方撕毁合同。

07年26题

 The mayor has offered a reward of $ 5000 to ____ who can capture the tiger alive or dead.

  A. both B. others C. anyone D. another

选C。此处的anyone的意思是任何一个人，放在句中正和题意。

07年（春）26题

 Treat ____ to a glass of wine to help you relax at the end of the day.

  A. one B. oneself C. you D. yourself

选D。此句是祈使句，所以事实主语是“you”，主语和宾语是同一人，所以要用反身代词。

形容词和副词

一、形容词、副词的比较级与最高级

1．形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化

形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化分规则和不规则两种情况。

规则的变化，短的词（单音节及部分双音节的词）一般是在词尾加“er”或“est”（其中重读闭音节要双写最后的辅音字母；e结尾只要加“r”或“st”；“y”加辅音结尾的去“y”加“ier”或“iest”）如：big, bigger, biggest；late, later, latest；early, earlier, earliest等，较长的词（部分双音节及多音节的词）在前面加上more或most，如：careful, more careful, most careful；clearly, more clearly, most clearly等。

不规则变化的词为：good, well, bad, badly, ill, many, much, little, old, far。变化见下表：

原级	比较级	最高级
good, well	better	best
bad, badly, ill	worse	worst
many, much	more	most
little	less	least
old	older, elder	oldest, eldest
far	farther, furthest	farther, furthest

 

2．常用的比较级、最高级句型

 A) 用原级形容词、副词的句型：

  a) as... as...“和......一样......”

   eg. Try to make as few mistakes as you can.

      He speaks English as fluently as you.

  b) not as/so... as... “不如.......那样......”

   eg. People’s brains cannot work as fast as computers.

  c)在以上两个句型中，我们还可以加上“倍数”“分数”“百分数”等词。

   eg. Tibet is twice as large as Texas. (= Tibet is twice the size of Texas).

      My handwriting is not half so good as yours.

 B) 用比较级形容词、副词的句型：

  a) ...er than... / more ... than... “比......更......”

   eg. It’s cheaper to eat at home than in the restaurant.

   注意：用比较级句型的时候，比较的对象必须是同类事物。在汉语中，我们常看到“上海的天气比北京热”，这样的句子，但在做翻译的时候就要注意，必须是同类作比较：

The weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.

   在比较级形容词和副词前，还可以用一些副词或短语修饰，如：much, far, even, still, a lot, a little, a bit, rather, slightly, *many等。

   eg. Your argument is far more persuasive than his.

这些修饰语中的many只用在more +可数名词之前，表“多得多”之意，如many more students。而要表示“多得多”的不可数的东西，则要用much more。

还可以用“倍数（如three times）”，“数词+量词（如two degrees或five hours等）”来修饰。除此之外，还有by far也能修饰比较级的句型，但by far多用在比较级之后，个别情况下，可用在比较级之前。

   eg. He arrived here only 5 minutes earlier than you.

      The new method is more complicated by far than the old one.

  b) less ... than... “不如......那样......”

   eg. In my opinion, the writer’s second book is less interesting than his first one.

  c) ...er and ...er/ more and more “越来越......”

   eg. With the final examination drawing nearer and nearer, Tim was getting more and more nervous.

  d) the ...er, the ...er / the more ..., the more...  “越......，就越......”

   eg. The faster you solve the problem, the best result you will get.

  e)带有than的句型，但不是比较的意思。

    more than = not only  eg. Students have learned more than book knowledge at school.

    other than = 1)except  eg. There’s nothing in his room other than books.

              2)anything but   eg. I couldn’t feel other than surprised.

              3)different from  eg. His tastes are quite other than mine.

    rather than = instead of  eg. The color seems green rather than blue.

                            I would sleep rather than see a film tonight.

  f)在表示“两者之中比较......的那一个”时，比较级形容词前要用定冠词the。

   eg. Bill is the taller of the twin brothers.

 C)用最高级形容词、副词的句型：

  a) the ...est/ most ... of/ in...

   eg. China is one of the largest countries in the world.

  b)可以用比较级的句型来表示最高级的意思：

    eg. Tom is taller than anyone else/ any other one/ any of the others/ all the others in our class.

       No one is taller than Tom in our class.

       I have never seen a better film than this one.

    请注意在上面第一个例子中的other, else等的用法。试比较：

       China is bigger than any other country in Asia.

       Chins is bigger than any country in Africa.

  c)在最高级形容词或副词前可以用序数词或very, much, by far等。

   eg. The Yellow River is the second longest river in China.

      Among the candidates, John is the very youngest.

      The Pacific is by far the largest ocean in the world.

  d)在作比较的时候，最高级形容词前必须用定冠词或物主代词所有格、指示代词，在最高级副词的前面可用可不用。

   eg. Don’t forget to wear the/your best clothes to the job interview.

     He runs (the) fastest in our class.

   但是有时候会看到在最高级形容词前不用定冠词的例子，这时，这个最高级其实不是“最......”的意思，而是“非常......”的意思。

   eg. This is a most interesting film.

二、有关形容词的一些要点

1．作定语和作表语的形容词

    英语中很多形容词都既可作定语，也可作表语，如kind，可以说She is a kind teacher，或She is kind。但是有些形容词只能作表语，如很多a开头的形容词（afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake）以及glad, pleased, sorry, tired等。

    有些形容词用作表语时的意思与用作定语时的意思不一样。试比较：

  1）He is ill in bed.

     Ill news runs apace(=quickly).

  2) What’s your present address?

    All the members were present at the conference.

*2．多个形容词修饰同一个名词的词序排列：

   eg.  a charming small round old brown French oak writing table

       （描述性→大小→形状→新旧/年龄→颜色→地方→物质材料→用途）

3．形容词和名词的正确搭配

    eg. price (high/low); goods (cheap/expensive); population (large/ small); rain (heavy/light)

4．形容词作状语/补语

    形容词有时可以作句子的状语（也有的语法书上称之为补语）。

    eg. The little girl went home, cold and hungry.

       The captain promised to land the passengers safe.

5．一些由同一词根派生出来的形容词词义辨析

   英语中根据构词法，经常可碰到一些由同一词根派生出的不同的形容词，在学习掌握的时候需要加以注意，不要混淆。

   A) historic与historical

     historic意思为“历史上有重大意义的”，historical意思为“历史的”。

      eg. Waterloo is a historic battlefield, where Napoleon’s army was defeated.

         Have you seen the historical film about Napoleon?

   B) sensible与sensitive

     sensible意思为“明智的”“合理的”“可感觉到的”，sensitive意思为“敏感的”“神经过敏的”。

     eg. Surely it would be sensible to get a second opinion before taking any further action.

        There is a sensible increase in temperature because of the global warmth.

        This is such a sensitive issue that we should deal with it carefully.

   C) imaginable, imaginary与imaginative

     imaginable意思是“能够想象的”“想象得出的”，imaginary意思是“想象（出来）的”“虚构的”，imaginative是“富于想象力的”。

     eg. The seven dwarfs tried every imaginable means, but couldn’t wake her up.

        All the characters in the story are imaginary.

        Jack was an imaginative child though he didn’t do well at school.

三、有关副词的一些要点

1．副词的位置

   频度副词一般在动词“be”与助动词之后，行为动词之前.

   eg. David is usually late.

      He seldom comes early.

      You can never imagine how embarrassed I was at that time!

   修饰动词的副词经常在动词之后，有时也可放在句首。

   eg. Though I did the exercise very carefully, I failed again.

      Suddenly, a tall man appeared from behind the curtain.

   表地点和时间的副词可放在句尾或句首。

2．与形容词同形的副词，以及词尾以ly结尾的副词

  A)有些有ly结尾的副词经常可以有抽象的意义，而与形容词同形的副词表示的是比较具体的意义。如high/highly; deep/deeply; wide/widely

  eg. He can jump very high.

     The principal speaks highly of your work.

  B)有些词的意思完全不同如hard/hardly; near/nealy; late/lately; most/mostly，需要加以注意。

3．一些常用副词的用法

A) very, much, very much与well的用法

  very一般修饰形容词、副词和现在分词，如：very good/hard/interesting

  much一般修饰比较级和过去分词，如：much faster/ respected

  very much一般修饰动词，如：I love it very much.

  well一般修饰worth doing与介词短语，如：well worth reading/above the trees

B) fairly与rather

   fairly与rather都有“相当”的意思，但一般fairly修饰带有褒义的形容词或副词，含有“正合适”，“恰当”等的意义；而rather含有“过分”的意义，所以修饰带有贬义的形容词和副词更多，如：fairly warm, rather hot; fairly cool, rather cold; fairly easy, rather difficult等。

 C) nearly与almost

   nearly与almost都可以解释为“几乎”，一般情况下，两个词经常可以互换，有人认为用almost时，感觉上比nearly更接近一些。

   eg. The work was almost/nearly completed.

      Almost/Nearly all the Japanese eat rice.

   在any及一些否定词no, none, never, nothing, nobody的前面，必须使用almost。

   eg. Almost no one believed what he said.

   固定词组not nearly的意思是“远远不（够）。”

   eg. There are not nearly enough people here to do the job.

      I have 20 dollars, but that isn’t nearly enough for my journey fare.

高考真题试析：

01年26题

 In recent years travel companies have succeeded in selling us the idea that the further we go, ____.

  A. our holiday will be better B. our holiday will be the better

  C. the better our holiday will be D. the better will our holiday be

选C。这是一个“the more..., the more...”的比较结构，在用这一结构时，后面的主谓是正常语序，不用倒装。

01年46题

 I don’t think Peter is too young to take care of the pet dog ____.

  A. correctly B. properly C. exactly D. actively

 选B。此句中properly可解为“完全地”，全句的意思是“我认为比德已经不小了，完全可以照顾好他的宠物狗了。”而其他三个选项都不符合题意。

01年47题

 According to the new research gardening is a more ____ exercise for older women than jogging or swimming.

  A. mental B. physical C. effective D. efficient

 选C。根据上下文，本题的意思是“根据最新研究，对于年纪较大的妇女来说，园艺是比慢跑和游泳更加......的一项锻炼”，那么在四个选项中，只有用effective（有效）才讲得通。mental意思是“智力的”，physical是“体力的”，efficient是“效率高的”，显然都不符合题意。

02年26题

As far as I am concerned, education is about learning and the more you learn, ____.

  A. the more for life are you equipped B. the more equipped for life you are

  C. the more life you are equipped for D. you are equipped the more for life

选B。本题考比较级the more..., the more...的句型。在用这个句型的时候，值得提醒的是：我们所记的“the more”，其实是“the + 形容词或副词比较级”。本句中，过去分词equipped作用相当于形容词，意思是“做好准备的”，那么它的比较级就是more equipped。这样就不难理解为什么要选B了。

02年43题

 The secret of his success is that he does everything ____.

  A. efficiently B. curiously C. anxiously D. sufficiently

选A。四个选项中，efficiently意思是“效率高地”；curiously是“好奇地”；anxiously是“急切地”；sufficiently是“充分地”。只有用efficiently，本句才讲得通，“他成功的秘诀在于他做每一件事都效率很高”。

02年49题

 The shopkeeper gave us ____ weight: we got 9 kilos instead of 10 kilos.

  A. scarce B. short C. light D. slight

 选B。本题考英语的习惯表达法。中文所说的“缺秤”，“分量不足”，在英语中用“short weight”来表达。不用其他说法。

03年48题

 Broadly speaking, I would agree with Shirley, though not ____.

  A. widely B. thoroughly C. entirely D. extensively

 选C。根据上下文，本句的意思为“大体上说来，我还是同意谢丽，虽然不是全都同意。”entirely的意思就是“完全地”，符合本题要求。

03年51题

 Those who change mobile phones frequently will pay a heavy price for being ____.

  A. graceful B. fashionable C. particular D. feasible

 选B。本题考形容词词义。解题时要考虑的是“频繁换手机的人将为什么东西而付出高额代价？”所以显然答案就是fashionable，“他们是为追求时髦而付出代价”。其他各项都不符合题意。

04年31题

 The house rent is expensive. I’ve got about half the space I had at home and I’m paying ____ here.

  A. as three times much B. as much three times

  C. much as three times D. three times as much

选D。本题考倍数的正确表达。用英语表达倍数，一般都是把倍数放在as ... as或 ...er than之前。这个句子为了避免重复，把three times as much之后的 as ...部分省略了。

04年32题

 He speaks English well indeed, but of course not ____ a native speaker.

  A. as fluent as B. more fluent than C. so fluently as D. much fluently than

选C。本句考副词的比较等级。因为要修饰怎么“说英语”， 不能用形容词，应该是用副词来修饰，所以A、B两项不用考虑。而如要表示“比......更流利”，应该是more fluently than，所以D项也不对。表示“不如......”可以用“not as/so+原级形容词或副词+ as”的句型。全句的意思是“他英语说得的确很好，但当然还是不如一个以英语为母语的人那么流利。”

04年51题

 Most people on this island are recreational fishers, and ____, fishing forms an actual part of their leisure time.

  A. accidentally B. purposefully C. obviously D. formally

 选C。本题考副词。根据前后两个半句，“岛上大部分人都是钓鱼爱好者”，“钓鱼成为他们休闲时间的一个实际组成部分”，最恰当的连接应该用“很显然”，所以用C，其他选项都不符合逻辑。

05年28题

 At a rough estimate, Nigeria is ____ Great Britain.

  A. three times the size as B. the size three times of

  C. three times as the size of D. three times the size of

选D。本题考倍数表达法。在英语中倍数应该放在“as ... as” ，“-er than”，或 “the

size/length/width...”之前，所以D是正确的表达。

05年41题

 There was such a long queue for coffee at the interval that we ____ gave up.

  A. eventually B. unfortunately C. generously D. purposefully

 选A。本题考副词。根据上下文，可以知道“有一个很长的队伍排着要咖啡”，所以“我们最终放弃了。”eventually意思是“最终”，正合题意，其他都说不通。

05年44题

 At times, worrying is a normal, ____ response to a difficult event or situation ––a loved one being injured in an accident, for example.

  A. effective B. individual C. inevitable D. unfavorable

选C。本题考形容词。所给的四个形容词，effective意思是“有效的”，individual是“个人的”，inevitable是“不可避免的”、“必然的”，unfavorable是“不利的”。本题的意思应该为“有时候，处于一种困境时——比如一个所爱的人在一次事故中受伤了——忧虑是一种正常的，不可避免的反应。”

06年28题

 A typhoon swept across this area with heavy rains and winds ____ strong as 113 miles per hour.

  A. too B. very C. so D. as

选D。本题考形容词比较的句型，只有as...as可以在次运用，因为so...as的形式一般是用在否定句里的。as...as在这里的意思是“有......如此强的程度”，整句的意思为“伴随着大雨和强达每小时113英里的狂风，台风袭击了这个地区。”

07年27题

 Alan is a careful driver, but he drives ____ of my friends.

  A. more carefully B. the most carefully C. less carefully D. the least carefully

选D。本题考副词的最高级。“在我的朋友当中”，一定是超过两个人，同时句子中也没有than一词，所以不可能用比较级，而后半句由but引出，说明意思有转折，所以不可能用the most carefully，只能选D。

语法讲座：分词

一、分词的形式

1．现在分词与过去分词的主要区别

 A)及物动词的现在分词与过去分词的区别

  eg. The news excited the children.

     →The news was exciting.  The children were excited.

     → the exciting news    the excited children

     My teacher’s words encouraged me greatly.

    → My teacher’s words were encouraging.  I was greatly encouraged.

    通过上述例子，可以发现，及物动词的现在分词表示的是“主动”，它的过去分词是“被动”。

   试分析：tiring与tired

           interesting与interested

          pleasing与pleased

 B)不及物动词的现在分词与过去分词的区别

  eg. China is a developing country and the UK is a developed country.

     developing：正在发展，发展中

     developed：已经发展好的，发达的

   试比较：boiling与boiled，falling与fallen，burning与burned。

    通过上述例子，可以发现，不及物动词的现在分词表示的是“进行”，它的过去分词是“完成”。

2．现在分词的四种形式

    现在分词除了一般式之外，还有完成式和被动式，以动词do为例，现在分词的四种形式见下表：

doing	being done
having done	having been done

A) doing：主动/进行

   eg. a)I hear someone singing an English song in the next room.

        Last night, I heard someone singing an English song in the next room.

      b) The man standing on the platform is waving his hand to us.

      c) They stood by the roadside, begging.

    doing所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生，与逻辑主语是主动关系。

B) being done：被动/进行

   eg. The problem being discussed is very important.

      The museum being built there will be open to the public next year.

    being done所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生，但与逻辑主语是被动关系。

C) having done：主动／完成

   eg. Having done his homework, Tim played chess with his friends.

      Having cleaned the classroom, I went home.

     having done所表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前，与逻辑主语是主动关系。

D) having been done：被动/完成

    eg. Having been surrounded by the flood for over a week, the villagers lacked food and medicine.

       Having been shown the library, the visitors were led to the audio-visual lab.

     having been done所表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前，与逻辑主语是被动关系。

E) Conclusion：

现在分词	doing      (主动/进行)	being done     (被动/进行)
	having done (主动/完成)	having been done(被动/完成)
过去分词	/	done          (被动/完成)

having been done与done的区别：

     试分析：Written in simple English, the book is easy to read.

             Built more than 800 years ago, the Krimlin is the working place of the Russian president.

             Having been surrounded by the flood for over a week, the villagers lacked food and medicine.

            Having been shown round the library, the visitors were led to the audio-visual lab.

过去分词所表示的动作也发生在谓语动词之前，与逻辑主语的关系也是被动，但它不象having been done强调两个动作先后发生，过去分词经常可表示一种完成的状态。

3．分词的否定形式：not +分词

    eg. She remained silent, not knowing what to say.

       Not hearing the bell, the teacher kept on teaching.

二、分词的功能

1．表语 (doing/ done)

   eg. The situation is inspiring.

      The little girl is charming.

      He looks disappointed.

Nanjing Road is crowded at weekend.

Those days are gone forever.

2．宾语补足语 (doing/ done)

   可以跟分词作宾语补足语的常用动词有see, look at, notice, watch, observe, hear, listen to, feel, smell, have, get, set, leave, keep, make, find等。

   eg. Mary heard someone knocking at the door.

      I found him sitting/seated at the back of the room.

      I didn’t recognize him, because he had his hair cut.

      Don’t worry. I’ll have the car waiting for you.

      She saw her baby playing with their pet dog.

      She saw a patient carried out of the room by the doctors.

      The policeman noticed the small kitchen window broken.

*The teacher caught him cheating in the exam.

*I won’t have you talking like that.

3．定语 (doing/ done/ being done)

   分词作定语，如果只是单个的分词，一般放在名词前，如是词组，一般放在名词之后。

   eg. He took a burning stick from the fire.

      There was a lighted candle at the corner of the table.

      We met a group of children training in the playground.

      Mr Smith is a man greatly respected by his colleagues.

      The house being repaired was on fire last night.

   试分析：What I saw in the dark was a     ？    face. (frightened/frightening)

    注意：现在分词作定语时，分词表示的动作是与句子谓语动词同时发生，不能表示位于动词之前发生的动作，如“我要跟那位打碎玻璃窗的男孩谈谈”就不能分词翻成“(X)I’ll talk with the boy breaking the window”，而要用定语从句“the boy who broke the window”。

有些分词还可放在形容词前，用法相当于一个副词，如burning hot, freezing cold,等。

4．状语 (doing/ done/ having done/ having been done)

   分词（短语）经常用作时间、原因、条件及伴随状语。

   eg. Hearing the news, they jumped for joy.

      Having received the final medical check, the astronauts boarded the spaceship.

      Having been operated on the leg, the patient was moved to the ward.

      Being young, he was energetic.

      Badly injured, the driver lost consciousness.

      Having lived there for more than half a year, she is familiar with the city.

      Given more time, I could do it better.

      Heated for a while, water will turn into vapour.

      They sat on the grass, looking at the setting sun.

      Holding the million-pound note, he stood there dumbfounded.

   分词作状语，分词短语前有时还可以用连词when, while, if, unless, once, until, though等。

   eg. If playing all day, you will waste your time.

      Don’t mention it when/while talking with Mary.

      He will not come unless invited.

      Though warned of the danger, he still went skating on the ice.

      Leave the chicken in the oven until cooked to a brown color.

   有的分词短语已经相当于一个固定用语，如generally speaking, judging from..., talking of...等，要靠平时注意和积累。

   eg. Judging from his appearance, he can’t be over forty.

      Generally speaking, boys are more interested in such activities than girls.

      Talking of language learning, communication is of great importance.

   注意：我们用分词作状语的时候，它的逻辑主语必须是句子的主语或分词前面的名词。

   错句： Walking through the park, the flowers looked beautiful.

          →Walking through the park, I saw some beautiful flowers.

   错句：Running into the house, the door banged after the boy.

          →Running into the house, the boy banged the door.

5．分词独立结构(Absolute Construction)

A)Try to turn the following complex sentences into simple ones:

   a) Because I had lost all my money, I had to give up my plan.

    →Having lost all my money, I had to give up my plan.

   b) When she was left alone in the room, she began to weep.

    →Left alone in the room, she began to weep.

   c) If time permits, I will show you round the campus.

    →？Permitting, I will show you round the campus

            X

    → Time permitting, I will show you round the campus.

  当分词的逻辑主语与句子的主语不一致时，我们可以保留这个逻辑主语，这种“名词+分词”的结构，就是分词的独立结构。

   eg. The work done, they set to clean the room.

       = After the work was done, they set to clean the room.

      There being no one in the room, I left a note on the desk.

       =Since there was no one in the room, I left a note on the desk.

      The last bus having gone, we had to walk home.

       =Because the last bus had gone, we had to walk home.

   试试看：

      I saw a boy lay on the ground, his teeth ______(set), his eyes ______(look) upwards, his right hand ______(clench) on his chest.

        (set/ looking/ clenched)

 B)分词的独立结构之前，有时还可以带有介词with。(with + noun + -ing/ -ed)

    eg. The little boy called out to his mother, with tears running down his cheeks.

       The old woman sat on the bed, with her legs crossed.

   如果在with+分词独立结构中的分词是being的话，being经常省略。

    eg. Don’t talk with your mouth (being) full.

       She set out in the morning, with a heavy basket (being) on her back.

高考真题试析：

01年28题

 Finding her car stolen, ____

  A. a policeman was asked to help B. the area was searched thoroughly

  C. it was looked for everywhere D. she hurried to a policeman for help

选D。本题考的是现在分词作状语时的逻辑主语问题。因为finding这一动作必定是“she”所做，所以就选D。

01年38题

 The bell ____ the end of the period rang, ____ our heated discussion.

  A. indicating; interrupting B. indicated; interrupting

  C. indicating; interrupted D. indicated; interrupted

选A。如果在句子中注意到rang这个动词，就不难理解本句的主要成分是：The bell rang。因为句子里没有任何连词，所以句子中的两个空格应该都是非谓语动词。第一格是用分词短语做定语修饰the bell，因为the bell与indicate是主谓关系，所以我们要选用现在分词。第二格是分词短语做状语，而the bell与interrupt也是主谓关系，所以也要用现在分词。

02年33题

 Though ____ money, his parents managed to send him to university.

  A. lacked B. lacking of C. lacking D. lacked in

选C。本句考分词作状语的用法。当分词与逻辑主语的关系是主谓关系时，用通常用现在分词；而当分词与逻辑主语的关系是动宾关系时，一般要用过去分词。本句中“他的父母”是“缺钱”的主语，所以只能在B与C两项中作选择。而动词lack可以及物，也可以不及物，不及物的时候一般后面跟介词in。只有在lack当名词的时候，后面用介词of。所以本题选C。

02年34题

 Don’t use words, expressions, or phrases ____ only to people with specific knowledge.

  A. being known B. having been known C. to be known D. known

选D。本句考非谓语动词作定语。四个选项中，having been known这一分词的完成被动形式一般不用于作定语。如果用being known，意思是“正在被（某人）所知”；to be known的意思是“将被（某人）知道”；known的意思是“（已）为（某人）所知”，根据题意，只有known符合逻辑。

03年30题

 It is believed that if a book is ____, it will surely ____ the reader.

  A. interested; interest B. interesting; be interested

  C. interested; be interesting D. interesting; interest

选D。第一格用interesting（有趣的）是大家都理解的；在第二格要用interest，是因为在此处interest是谓语动词，意思为“使（某人）感兴趣”。

03年39题

 Generally speaking, ____ according to the directions, the drug has no side effect.

  A. when taking B. when taken C. when to take D. when to be taken

选B。本题考分词作状语。因为分词作状语是，到底用现在分词还是过去分词，看它跟逻辑主语是主动还是被动关系，是主动就用现在分词，是被动就用过去分词。本题中分词的逻辑主语是drug（药）与take（吃）显然是被动关系，所以用B。

04年27题

 According to a recent US survey, children spend up to 25 hours a week ____ TV.

  A. to watch B. to watching C. watching D. watch

选C。本题考-ing分词。因为动词spend的固定搭配是spend some time (in) doing sth.，所以本句选C。

04年34题

 The flowers ____ sweet in the botanic garden attract the visitors to the beauty of nature.

  A. to smell B. smelling C. smelt D. to be smelt

选B。本题考非谓语动词作定语的用法。因为动词空格后面跟的是形容词sweet，说明它前面的那个动词应该是一个联系动词，而联系动词是没有被动的用法的，所以可以排除C、D两项。如果用不定式作定语，表示的是一个将要发生的动作，在此句中意思说不通，所以选B。

04年35题

 The disc, digitally ____ in the studio, sounded fantastic at the party that night.

  A. recorded B. recording C. to be recorded D. having recorded

选A。本句也是考非谓语动词作定语的用法。因为所修饰的词the disc与动词record的关系是被动，而且是“已经被录制下来”的意思，所以只能选A。如果选用C，虽然也是被动，但意思是“将要被录制下来”，在本句中不适合。

04年42题

 Having been attacked by terrorists, ____.

  A. doctors came to their rescue B. the tall building collapsed

  C. an emergency measure was taken D. warnings were given to tourists

选B。本题考分词作状语时的逻辑主语问题。我们都知道，分词作状语时，它的逻辑主语就是句子的主语，根据这一语法规则，就可以根据上下文来判断，到底是谁或什么“受到恐怖分子的攻击”，所以选B。全句的意思是“受到恐怖分子的攻击之后，高楼倒塌了。”

05年33题

 ____ into use in April 2000, the hotline was meant for residents reporting water and heating supply breakdowns.

  A. Put B. Putting C. Having put D. Being put

选A。本题考分词作状语。因为the hotline是分词的逻辑主语，所以我们可以判断出hotline与put into use是被动关系。四个选项中，A、D两项是被动，但being done一般不作状语，且这一形式的意思是“正在被......”与in April 2000有矛盾。所以正确选项是A。

05年36题

 More and more people are signing up for Yoga classes nowadays, ____ advantage of the health and relaxation benefits.

  A. taking B. taken C. having taken D. having been taken

选A。本题考分词作作状语，因为分词作状语时，它的逻辑主语应该是句子的主语。本句中people与take advantage of ...是主动关系，而且不是这一动作完成之后，人们才去加入瑜珈班的，所以选用taking。

06年34题

 Russ and Earl were auto mechanics ____ the same pay, but Earl had more ambition.

  A. to earn B. to have earned C. earning D. earned

选C。本句中的分词earning是作为伴随情况的状语，它的逻辑主语是Russ和Earl，跟主语的关系是主谓关系，所以用现在分词。

06年40. ____ automatically, the e-mail will be received by all the club members.

  A. Mailed out B. Mailing out C. To be mailed out D. Having mailed out

选A。“mail out”与“e-mail”是动宾关系。A与C两项都是表被动意义的，但c项是不定式，带有将来意义，所以在此不合适。

07年34. After a knock at the door, the child heard his mother’s voice ____ him.

  A. calling B. called C. being called D. to call

选A。本句考查非谓语动词作宾语补足语。因为谓语动词hear后，只跟没有to的不定式，所以D项排除。选calling是因为宾补与宾语是主谓关系，不是动宾关系。

07年36. The Town Hall ____ in the 1800’s was the most distinguished building at that time.

  A. to be completed B. having been completed

  C. completed D. being completed

选C。本题考非谓语动词作定语。虽然四个选项都有被动的意思，但分别有不同的侧重点。to be completed是不定式，带有将来意义，所以这里显然不能用；having been completed表示的是在谓语动词之前完成的一个被动的动作，强调两个动作一个接着一个发生，这一形式主要是用作状语，所以B项也不妥；D项being completed的意思是“正在建造的”，也不合题义。而在句子里，“1800年代建成”是用作定语修饰the Town Hall，过去分词completed侧重的是一个建好的状态，所以是正确选项。

语法讲座：动名词

一、动名词的形式

1．动名词的时态与语态形式

动名词的时态与语态形式与现在分词完全一样，以do为例，共有四种形式：

doing	being done
having done	having been done

注：正因为动名词和现在分词的形式一样，所以在我们的教科书与一些英语语法书中，把动名词和现在分词统一称为-ing分词。现在为了方便学习与记忆，所以我们还是把动名词专门列出进行分析讲解。

A)动名词的一般式doing

doing一般并不强调动作发生的时间，所以与谓语动词作比较的话，这个动作可以在谓语动词之前发生，也可以在谓语动词的同时发生，还可以在谓语动词之后发生，甚至根本就不涉及到时间这个问题。

  eg. He decided to give up smoking.

     Reading a lot can help me to understand better.

     The boy practises playing the piano every evening.

     Smoking is harmful.

B)动名词的完成形式having done

    having done所表示的动作都发生在谓语动词之前。

  eg. He didn’t mention having met you before.

     I have no idea of their having done such a thing.

     The old teacher was given a medal for having completed sixty years of teaching.

     Mrs. Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize for having discovered the element radium.

C)动名词的被动形式being done

    being done所表示的是一个被动的动作。

  eg. Mike came into the office without being asked.

     The problem is far from being settled.

  注：在一些特定的动词或词组后面，动名词用的是主动形式，但表示的是被动的意义，如在want, need, require, be worth等词之后。

   eg. The flower wants watering. (= to be watered)

      The old clock needs oiling. (= to be oiled)

      The problem requires considering again. (= to be considered again)

      The book is worth reading. (= is worthy to be read)

D)动名词的完成被动形式having been done

    having been done所表示的是一个发生在谓语动词之前的被动的动作。

  eg. Tom was ashamed of having been scolded by the principal.

     I still remembered having been taken to Suzhou by my mother when I was 5.

2．动名词的否定形式

    动名词的否定形式就是在动名词之前加not。

  eg. He insisted on Lisa’s not going there alone.

    He was criticized for not having finished his homework.

3．动名词的复合结构

    动名词的复合结构就是在动名词前用名词或代词的所有格：sb’s doing。这个所有格通常就是这个动名词的逻辑主语。

  eg. Do you mind my opening the window?

     Tom’s getting up early surprised his parents.

 注1：如果这个动名词是作宾语，那么我们还可以用宾格加动名词，而当动名词是作主语时，就只能用所有格。如上面的第一个例子就能改成：Do you mind me opening the window? 但第二个例子的Tom’s（或His）不能换成Tim（或Him）。

另外，如果这个动名词的逻辑主语是无生命的“物”时，我们通常也不用所有格。

 eg. You can hear the noise of desks being opened and closed outside the school.

 注2：并不是所有的动名词前都要加所有格的，所以只有在需要时才用动名词的复合结构。有时用与不用，意义是不同的。

   试比较：Do you mind turning on the light?

           Do you mind my turning on the light?

二、动名词的功能

1．作主语

  eg. Getting up early is a good habit.

     Teaching English is my work.

     Breathing became difficult when they reached the top of the mountain.

     There is no joking about such matters.

  动名词作主语时，也可以用it作形式主语，如：

     It is no use crying over spilt milk.

     It is a waste of time quarrelling with each other.

  动名词与不定式都能作主语，但动名词一般表示的是比较抽象的行为，或者目前的动作，而不定式则往往用来表示具体的动作，特别是将来的动作。

  试比较：A) Smoking is not allowed in the library.

            It’s not very good for you to smoke so much.

          B) Building houses is their job. They are builders.

            I am on duty today. To keep the classroom clean is my duty.

  有的时候，选择动名词还是不定式作主语，要根据习惯搭配或者句子的平衡来定。

       eg. A) It’s important to study English well.

            It is no good reading without thorough comprehension.

          B) Seeing is believing.

            To see is to believe.

2．作表语

  eg. His hobby is collecting stamps.

     The real problem is getting to know the needs of the market.

  动名词和不定式都能作表语，它们之间的区别与作主语时的区别相同。

  试比较：His job is cleaning the toilets, but his dream is to be the manager of the company.

3．作定语

  动名词作定语，一般放在被修饰词之前，主要用于讲清被修饰词的用途或目的。

  eg. a sleeping bag = a bag for sleeping

    drinking water = water for drinking

    a smoking room = a room for smoking

  动名词与现在分词都能作定语，但现在分词作定语时，往往用来表示所修饰名词的动作或状态，与被修饰词是主谓关系。

  eg. a sleeping lion = a lion that is/was sleeping

     boiling water = water that is/was boiling

     a smoking chimney = a chimney that is/was smoking

  试比较：a dancing hall, a dancing girl

          a swimming pool, the swimming dog

          the waiting room, the waiting patients

Practice: Read the following short passage and try to find out the answer to the questions.

Some boys put up a notice outside their garden gate, which read:

 

 

 

   Some people paid their three pence and went inside. What did they expect to see?  And what do you think t they will see?

Key: They expected to see a match for floating. But all they saw was a match-stick floating in a basin of water. (They expected to see a gerund and all they saw was a participle!)

4．作宾语

  在英语中，动名词与不定式都能作宾语。根据词汇的惯用法，动名词作宾语可以分成以下几种类型：

A)只用动名词，不能用不定式

在高考词汇为范围中，常见的只用动名词，不能用不定式作宾语的动词有admit, advise, allow, appreciate, avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape. excuse, fancy, finish, forbid, imagine, keep, mind, miss, permit, practise, risk, suggest,等。

eg. I have just finished writing the letter.

   You should avoid catching cold.

 注：在以上动词中，我们不可以用不定式作宾语，并不意味着我们不可以用不定式作它们的宾补，如allow sb to do sth, advise sb to do sth等，都是用不定式作宾补的例子。

B)只用不定式，不能用动名词

    常用的这类动词有：agree, decide, desire, expect, hope, offer, pretend, promise, refuse等等。

    eg. Karl Marx decided to study Russian when he was over fifty.

       I hope to meet you soon.

C)既可用动名词，又可用不定式，而且意思也差不多

  这类动词有：like, love, hate, prefer

     eg. The boy likes playing/ to play video games.

 注：如果讲到的是一贯的爱好等，用动名词更多；而讲到某一次具体的活动，特别是有将来意义时，用不定式多。也有一些特定的词组，一定要用不定式。

     eg. He likes playing football. But he would like to swim with his friends this afternoon.

        She prefers riding a bicycle to taking a bus.

        She prefers to take a bus rather than ride a bicycle.

除了以上动词之外，还有begin, start, continue, cease也具有同样的性质。

      eg. The baby began crying/ to cry.

 注：有的语法书上说，有三种情况下，begin等动词后不能用动名词（主语不是“人”；动词本身是进行时态；后接的是表示思维活动，精神状态等的动词如realize, understand）。

D) 既可用动名词，又可用不定式，但意思不同

  这类动词有：remember, forget, regret, stop, go on, try, mean。

  试比较. a) Please remember to wake me up at six tomorrow morning.

         I remember seeing him somewhere before.

       b) The child has forgotten to bring the book home.

         The child will never forget visiting the museum at night.

       c) I regret to tell you that he failed to pass the exam.

         I regret telling you that he failed to pass the exam.

       d) Please stop talking.

         They stopped to take a rest.

       e) He thought for a while and went on telling the story.

         After doing Exercise 1, they went on to do Exercise 2.

       f) If you can’t solve the problem, why not try solving it in my way?

         Try to get there on time no matter what happens.

       g) Sorry, I didn’t mean to hurt your feeling.

         Missing the train means waiting for another two hours.

注：既可用动名词，又可用不定式，但意思不同的词还有want, need, require。如果它们后面跟动名词的话，用的是主动形式，但事实是被动的含义，而用不定式，则主动形式表主动意义，被动形式表被动意义。

    还有help一词，在词组can’t help解释“忍不住”时，后用动名词，在help解释“帮助”时，后用不定式，而且to可以省略。

    eg. She can’t help crying at the news.

       Mary can’t help (to) do anything for us—she is only 5!

E)介词宾语

  动名词经常作为介词的宾语，在复习的时候，特别要当心介词to后的宾语。

    eg. He looks forward to seeing you again.

  常用的以介词to结尾的词组有：be/get used to, devote...to, lead to, look forward to, pay attention to, object to, oppose to, stick to，accustom to 等。

高考真题试析：

01年31题

 I really appreciate ____ to relax with you on this nice island.

  A. to have had time B. having time C. to have time D. to having time

选B。本题考的是动名词做宾语。因为appreciate后面只跟名词、动名词或宾语从句，不能跟不定式。

01年39题

 Fishing is his favorite hobby, and ____.

  A. he’d like to collect coins as well B. he feels like collecting coins, too

  C. to collect coins is also his hobby

D. collecting coins also gives him great pleasure

选D。本句考查的是句子的对称。用and连接的两个部分应该是对称的。因为前半句用动名词做主语，那么后半句也对应地用动名词作主语，这样的结构比较好。

02年38题

 ____ to sunlight for too much time will do harm to one’s skin.

  A. Exposed B. Having exposed C. Being exposed D. After being exposed

选C。本题考非谓语动词作主语。在非谓语动词中，只有动名词和不定式能做主语，分词不能做主语。另外，根据意思“被长时间地暴露在阳光下会对人的皮肤有害”，所以要选动名词的被动形式。

03年37题

 The discovery of new evidence led to ____.

  A. the thief having caught B. catch the thief

  C. the thief being caught D. the thief to be caught

选C。本题考动名词的复合结构。因为词组lead to（句中是led to）的to是介词，后面要跟动名词，同时还考虑到the thief与动词catch的关系是动宾关系，所以要用动名词的被动形式。

03年（春）36题

 ____ the meeting himself gave them a great deal of encouragement.

 A. The president will attend B. The president to attend

 C. The president attended D. The president’s attending

选D。通读全题，发现本句缺少主语，而所给的选项中，只有D合适，即动名词作主语。A，D两项是从句，但没有连词，所以不行。

04年（春）40题

 Victor apologized for ____ to inform me of the change in the plan.

  A. his being not able B. him not to be able C. his not being able D. him to be not able

选C。本题考动名词的复合结构及否定形式。在介词for后跟的是用动名词复合结构的宾语，所以B, D两项排除。动名词的否定，not要放在doing之前，所以A项错误。

05年32题

 He got well-prepared for the job interview, for he couldn’t risk ____ the good opportunity.

  A. to lose B. losing C. to be lost D. being lost

选B。本题考非谓语动词作宾语。在动词risk之后，习惯用-ing分词作宾语，所以A、C两项不考虑。而空格后面有the good opportunity是lose的宾语，所以此-ing分词不可能是被动，所以选B。

05年（春）33题

 Accustomed to ____ the steep mountains, he had no difficulty reaching the top.

  A. climbing B. climb C. having climbed D. have climed

选A。词组accustomed to的to是介词，所以后面必须跟动名词。accustomed to的意思是“习惯于......”。

06年31题

. Eugene’s never willing to alter any of his opinions. It’s no use ____ with him.

  A. to argue B. arguing C. argued D. having argued

选B。在句型It’s no use后习惯用doing，而非其他。

06年（春）29题

 The parents suggested ____ in the hotel room but their kids were anxious to camp out during the trip.

  A. sleep B. to sleep C. sleeping D. having slept

选C。suggest后只能跟动名词作宾语。

07年（春）33题

 All the staff in our company are considering ____ to the city centre for the fashion show.

  A. to go B. going C. to have gone D. having gone

选B。在动词consider之后，应该用动名词作宾语，不能用不定式，而且“考虑去做某事”一定是还没有做，所以不可能选having gone。

语法讲座：不定式

一、不定式的形式

1．不定式的时态与语态

不定式的时态与语态一共有六种形式，现以动词do为例，列表如下：

to do	to be done
to have done	to have been done
to be doing
to have been doing

A)不定式的一般式to do

  to do所表示的动作一般发生在谓语动词之后，但也可以是在谓语动词之前或与谓语动词几乎同时发生。

  eg. I have a lot of work to do.

     To improve your English, you should practise reading aloud every day.

     He seems to know the answer.

     I’m glad to see you.

B)不定式的完成式to have done

  to have done所表示的动作都发生在谓语动词之前。

  eg. I am sorry to have brought you so much trouble.

     She seems to have read the book.

C)不定式的进行式to be doing

  to be doing所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生。

  eg. It happened to be raining when I arrived.

     The child pretended to be sleeping when his mother came in.

D)不定式的完成进行式to have been doing

to have been doing所表示的动作，是从谓语动词之前某一个时间开始，进行到谓语动词所表示的时间。

  eg. He is said to have been writing a play for months.

     The man seemed to have been lying on the ground for a while.

E)不定式的一般被动式to be done

  to be done所表示的动作是被动的意义，多为发生在谓语动词之后，但有时也可以是在谓语动词之前或几乎与谓语动词同时发生。

  eg. The new underground railway is said to be opened to traffic at the end of this year.

     It’s an honour for me to be asked to speak here.

 注：有的时候，不定式所表示的动作虽然有被动意义，但我们不用被动形式，仍然用主动形式。这种现象主要在以下几种情况下出现：

 a)在一些形容词如easy, difficult, hard, nice, interesting, important, pleasant, dangerous, heavy, light, fit之后。

  eg. My bag is very heavy to carry.

     The sentence is easy to understand.

     The water is not fit to drink.

    I found the text difficult to translate into Chinese.

  这类的句子都可以用以it开头的句子来改写。如：It is heavy to carry my bag.

    I found it difficult to translate the text into Chinese.

 b)这个不定式与最近的一个名词或代词的关系是被动，但是在前面我们可以找到这个动作的执行者。

  eg. I have a lot of work to do.

     Will you please give me some books to read?

  试分析：I have five letters to type today.

          I have five letters to be typed today.

 c)在there be句型中的不定式，如果是被动的意义，我们可以用被动式，也可以用主动式。

  eg. There is nothing to do.

     There is nothing to be done.

F)不定式的完成被动式to have been done

  to have been done所表示的动作是被动意义，发生在谓语动词之前。

  eg. He was proud to have been chosen captain of the team.

     The book is said to have been translated into English.

2．不定式的否定形式

  不定式的否定形式就是把not加在to之前。

  eg. Take care not to catch cold.

The student pretended not to be listening.

     They are said not to have finished the work now.

3．不定式的逻辑主语

  不定式的逻辑主语可以用for sb放在不定式之前。

  eg. It’s not necessary for you to do so many exercises.

     It’s important for us to master a foreign language.

二、不定式的功能

1．作主语

  不定式作主语时一般都看成单数。

  eg. To be an astronaut is his dream.

     To make mistakes is human.

  不定式作主语可以用it作形式主语，而把真实主语放在后面。

  eg. It is nice to hear your voice.

     It is impossible to live without air.

  在作主语的不定式的前面还可以加上疑问词，如what to do, when to do, where to do,以及whether to do等。（注意：没有if to do的说法！）

  eg. What to do next has not been decided yet.

     Whether to carry out the project will be discussed later.

 注：不定式作主语与动名词作主语的区别我们已经在学习动名词时讨论过了，此处不再重复。

2．作表语

  eg. His ambition is to open a shop of his own.

     His theory proved to be true.

     What surprised me most was to see my father in the principal’s office.

  “wh- + to do”的形式也能作表语。

  eg. Our problem was how to get those involved informed as soon as possible.

  注：不定式作表语与动名词作表语的区别我们已经在学习动名词时讨论过了，此处也不再重复。

3．作宾语

  eg. He refused to give me a hand.

     Tom failed to pass the English exam.

     Little Alice appeared to have caught cold.

  “wh- +to do”的形式也能作宾语。

  eg. We have decided where and when to hold a meeting.

     The old man taught me how to catch fish with the net.

  如果在不定式宾语的后面还有宾语补足语的话，可以用it作形式宾语，而把真实宾语放到后面。

  eg. I found it not easy to persuade him to change his mind.

4．作宾语补足语

  eg. The teacher advised me to read a lot.

     His illness caused him to miss the game.

 注：在一些感觉动词与使役动词后面的不定式宾语补足语要省略“to”，这些动词是see, look at, notice, watch, observe, hear, listen to, feel; make, have, let等。help后的宾补的to可以省略，也可以保留。

  eg. I noticed a man steal into the office.

     They heard the space ship take off with a very loud noise.

     Don’t let the children play in the street.

     I will have them check it again.

     I’ll help you (to) carry the bag upstairs.

但如果这个动词是被动语态，那么“to”就不省略。

  eg. The poor boy was made to copy the text ten times.

     He was seen to quarrel with an old man.

注：不定式与分词都能用作宾语补足语，如果是主动的则现在分词与不定式都可以用，但分词强调动作在进行当中，而不定式则可能动作已经完成，强调整个过程，或是带有将来的意义。如果宾语与宾补的关系是被动的，那么就选用过去分词，偶尔也可看到用being done。

试比较：I heard the telephone ringing in the office.

        I heard the telephone ring three or four times in the office this morning.

        I once heard the song sung in English.

        I heard the boy being scolded by his mother.

        

He had the boy standing at the corner.

        He had the boy do the exercise again.

        He had the watch mended again.

5．作定语

  不定式作定语，放在被修饰词之后。

  eg. He worked out a plan to help his brother.

     Have you anything to say about it?

     Tom was the first to come this morning.

  注：不定式作定语，经常用在something, anything, nothing与序数词之后。并要特别注意不定式定语时，有时与被修饰词之间所用的介词不能忘记。

  eg. The first thing for him to do is to find a room to live in.

     You won’t have anything to worry about.

     Please find me a knife to cut the paper with.

与分词相比较，不定式作定语常带有将来的意义。

  试比较：Do you know the name of the book                 by Mr Glen?

 

6．作状语

  不定式经常用作目的、原因和结果状语。

  eg. She worked day and night to pay for the debt

     To be a teacher, one must first be a pupil.

     I am glad to meet you.

     He was sad to hear the news.

     I hurried to the station only to find the train gone.

     The boy woke up to find his bag of money missing.

  与分词作状语一样，不定式作状语时，也要注意它的逻辑主语应该与句子的主语一致。

  试分析：To learn the language well, ______.

         A. more exercise should be done    B. it’s necessary to read a lot

         C. learning some grammar is helpful  D. one must practise a lot.

                                                   应该选D。

但也有一些不定式可以看作一个固定词组，作整个句子的状语，如to tell the truth, to be frank with you, to begin with等。

  eg. To be frank with you, I don’t like the idea.

三、不定式的省略

1．省略to。

 A)在用and, or等连接的两个并列的不定式，第二个不定式前的to可以省略。

  eg. The robot can help you to clean the room and (to) wash clothes.

     Being blind and deaf, Helen was not able to see or (to) hear.

   在rather than后的不定式一般都要省略to。

     He prefers to work with his hands rather than work with his brain.

 B)在but, except之后，有时要省略。

  比较：He did nothing but watch TV all the evening.

        He had no choice but to wait outside patiently.

 C)在make, have, let, see, hear, notice等词或词组之后的不定式宾补，要省略to。

2．省略to后面的行为动词或词组，但保留to。

  eg. “Would you like to see a movie with me?”  “I’m glad to.” 或 “Sorry, I am not able to.”

     My father has given up smoking, but he used to.

高考真题：

01年29题

 Do let your mother know all the truth. She appears ____ everything.

  A. to tell . to be told C. to be telling D. to have been told

选D。本句考不定式的时态语态表达。后面一句的意思应该是“别人似乎已经告诉她这一切了”。不定式所表示的“告诉”是被动，而且发生在以前，所以要用它的完成被动形式。

02年25题

 In order to gain a bigger share in the international market, many state-run companies are striving ____ their products more competitive.

  A. to make B. making C. to have made D. having made

选A。本题考非谓语动词的用法。在英语中有的动词后面用不定式作宾语，有的用动名词作宾语。动词strive后面只能用不定式，意思是“努力去做某事”，因此也不可能用不定式的完成形式，因为不定式的完成形式表示的是一个发生在谓语动词之前的动作。

02年30题

 Quite a few people used to believe that disaster ____ if a mirror was broken.

  A. was sure of striking B. was sure of having struck

  C. was sure to be struck D. was sure to strike

选D。本题主要考词组be sure to do与be sure of的区别。be sure to do的意思是“一定会......”，表示说话人的一种猜测。而be sure of的意思是“确信”，表示句中主语对某事非常有把握。根据题意“相当多的人过去常认为，如果镜子打碎了，那么灾难一定会降临”，要表示的是说话人的猜测，所以应该用D。

03年43题

 An army spokesman stressed that all the soldiers had been ordered ____ clear warnings before firing any shots.

  A. to issue B. being issued C. to have issued D. to be issued

选A。本题考非谓语动词作宾语补足语。根据order一词的用法，惯用搭配是order sb to do sth.，所以要用不定式做宾补。

04年33题

 The flu is believed ____ by viruses that like to reproduce in the cells inside the human nose and throat.

  A. causing B. being caused C. to be caused D. to have caused

选C。本题考非谓语动词作补语。在动词believe后，应该用不定式作，所以A、B两项都不行。此外，根据下文中的by ...，可以看出此处要表示的是被动意思，所以只能选用C。

05年35题

 It was unbelievable that the fans waited outside the gym for three hours just ____ a look at the sports stars.

  A. had B. having C. to have D. have

选C。本题考非谓语动词作状语。根据上下文，可以看出，这是一个目的状语所以应该选不定式。整句的意思是：简直不能相信，那些追星族在体育馆外等了三小时，就是为了看一眼那些体育明星。

06年33.题

Energy drinks are not allowed ____ in Australia but are brought in from New Zealand.

  A. to make B. to be made C. to have been made D. be to making

选B。本题考不定式的时态和语态。因为动词allow的习惯用法是allow ... to do ...，而energy drinks与make又是被动关系，所以选B。

06年36题

 The mother felt herself ____ cold and her hands trembled as she read the letter from the battlefield.

  A. grow B. grown C. to grow D. to have grown

选A。在动词feel之后的宾语补足语可以用不定式或者分词，如用不定式时要省略to。因为grow cold与herself的关系是主动的，所以不能用过去分词，所以只有A项符合题意。

07年35题

 There is nothing more I can try ____ you to stay, so I wish you good luck.

  A. being persuaded B. persuading C. to be persuaded D. to persuade

选D。其实本题考的是非谓语动词作定语，所修饰的词是不定代词nothing。因为一般习惯用不定式修饰不定代词，所以只有D项正确。

语法讲座：反意疑问句和倒装句

一、反意疑问句(disjunctive questions/ tag questions)

1．前一句是肯定句，后面要用否定问句；前面是否定句，包括句子里带有否定意义的词如never, seldom, hardly, scarcely, rarely, few, little, no, nothing, none 等，后面要用肯定问句。

  eg. He has made few friends in his class, has he?

     You seldom meet with this kind of matter, do you?

     She said nothing at the meeting, did she?

  但是要注意，impossible, dissatisfy, uncomfortable这类词不是否定词。

  eg. He is impossible to finish the work by himself, isn’t he?

     The result of the maths exam dissatisfied you, didn’t it?

     You failed to pass the test, didn’t you?

2．前后的人称要一致，但后面的问句中只能用代词，不能用名词。如果前面的主语是everything, anything, something，nothing那么在问句中用it作主语；如果前面是everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, those, all(指人)等词作主语，那么后面问句可以用he或者they作主语，现在用they更加普遍。

  eg. Everything is ready, isn’t it?

     Nothing can prevent him from working, can it?

     Everyone in the village knew the man, didn’t they/ he?

  如果是there be的句型，那么后面的问句就用引导词there。

  eg. There are many people in the meeting room, aren’t there?

3．前后的动词要一致，但后面的问句只用作用词的缩略形式。

  eg. Linda feels better today, doesn’t she?

     He cannot walk, can he?

 注1：have如果解为“有”，那么后面问句中可以用have，也可以用do。have如果与其他动词组成一些词组，如have a meeting, have lunch, have to等，后面问句多用do。如果have是作为助动词构成完成时态，后面问句就用have。

  eg. He has no brothers, has/ does he?

     Most of the students have lunch at school, don’t they?

     You have been to many places, haven’t you?

 注2：当must作为“猜测”的用法时，后面的问句中往往不用must，而是跟must后面的动词。

  eg. He must be a teacher, isn’t he?

     It must have rained last night, didn’t it?

     Tom must have finished his homework now, hasn’t he?

4．带有从句的复合句，反意疑问句一般跟主句。

  eg. He could run very fast when he was young, couldn’t he?

     Mary was late because her father was ill, wasn’t she?

     The man who helped us yesterday is the manager of the company, isn’t he?

     You didn’t expect that we would win, did you?

  注：如果是I think, I expect, I believe 等加上宾语从句的句子，后面的问句就要跟从句一致。否则就不合逻辑了。

  eg. I don’t think he’ll appear this time, will he?

5．祈使句后的反意疑问句，后面的动词用will,，也可以用would, could, 或can。如果是肯定的祈使句，后面的问句可以用肯定，也可以用否定；如果是否定的祈使句，则多用肯定的问句。

  eg. Come with us, will/ won’t you?

     Don’t be late, will you?

  以let’s开头的祈使句，后面的问句用shall we，在口语中也可以用OK。以let us/ me/ him/ them开头的祈使句,后面的问句用will you。

  eg. Let’s go, shall we/ OK?

     Let me have a look, will you?

二、倒装句 (Inversion)

  我们在本节中，只讨论狭义的倒装结构，也就是只讨论句子的主谓部分倒装。

1．全部倒装和部分倒装 (Full Inversion and Partial Inversion)

  倒装分成全部倒装与部分倒装两种。全部倒装时，我们直接把所有的谓语动词都搬到主语之前；部分倒装的时候，句子的主谓结构类似一般疑问句的主谓结构，经常是动词的一部分在主语之前，剩余部分还在主语之后。

  比如在句子Tom stands in front of the blackboard中，主语是Tom，谓语是stands，所以当主谓语全部倒装时，主语和谓语的语序是stands Tom；部分倒装时，主语和谓语的语序就是does Tom stand。再比如在句子David is sitting over there中，主语是David，谓语动词是is sitting，那么全部倒装时，主语和谓语就是is sitting David这样的语序；部分倒装时，主语和谓语的语序就是is David sitting。

  想一想，如果句子是Tom is a good singer呢？如果句子是Peter was very excited呢？这样的句子，它们的全部倒装和部分倒装形式又是什么样子的？

  从上面的例子可以看出，当谓语动词是is, am, are, was, were时，全部倒装与部分倒装的形式重合了。

2．全部倒装 （Full Inversion）

  全部倒装结构主要用于以下两种句型：

A)以here, there, now, then以及表示地方或方位移动的副词或介词短语开头的句子。

  eg. Here comes the bus.

     There goes the bell.

     Now comes today’s news.

     Down struck the hammer.

     In rushed the boy.

     On the top of the hill stands a temple built 400 years ago.

     Under the road run the pipes for gas and water.

  注：在这一句型中，如果主语是代词，那么虽然句首还是同样的词或词组，主语和谓语并不倒装。

  eg. In he rushed.

     Here it comes.

B)当直接引语在前面时，主句的主谓部分可以倒装。

  eg. “Please go away,” said one child.

     “Where do you come from?” asked the little girl.

  但是这一句型中，也可以不用倒装结构。

2．部分倒装(Partial Inversion)

  部分倒装结构用于以下几种句型：

A)以否定词如not, never, hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, little, few, not only(... but also), hardly(... when), no sooner(... than), not until等开头的句子。

  eg. Little did I dream that such a thing would happen.

     Never have they ever seen an animal like that.

     Rarely does such a thing happen in our district.

     In no circumstances will I allow you to go there.

     Hardly had I got home than it began to rain.

     Scarcely had she left when the phone rang again.

     Not only are the students interested in the film, but also the teacher began to love it.

     Not until people lose their health do they realize its value.

  注：not until引导的句子里，主句的主谓倒装。

B)以only开头的句子。

  eg. Only on one point do I agree with you.

     Only when his mother came home did the boy begin to do his homework.

  注：only引导的句子里，主句的主谓倒装。

C)以so加上形容词或副词开头的句子。

  eg. So busy is he that he has no time to read newspapers.

     So fast did he run that I could not keep up with him.

D)以so, neither, nor + V. + S.的句型，表示“另一个也（不）如此”。

  eg. Mary spent the whole evening watching TV, and so did Jane.

     It is hot today. So was yesterday.

     The geography books haven’t arrived. Neither have the history books.

     He can’t remember the new telephone number. Nor can I.

 注：有时以so开头的句子不用倒装形式，这是这个句子的意思是“的确如此”，只是表示完全同意前面一句话。

  eg. “You forgot to bring the textbook with you!”  “Good heavens! So I did.”

     “Bill is the cleverest in our class.”  “So he is.

E)以一些副词或词组如often, always, many a time, well, thus等开头的句子。

  eg. Often do I see the man in the supermarket.

     Well do I remember my first day at school.

     Thus was the emperor cheated.

F)句型 “Gone are the days when...”

  eg. Gone are the days when I was young.

*G)虚拟条件句中，把were, had, should放在句首，省略连词if.。

  eg. Were I in your place, I would accept the job.

     Had I known it then, I would not have done it.

     Should it be Sunday tomorrow, I would go with you.

高考真题试析：

01年27题

 So difficult ____ it to live in an English-speaking country that I determined to learn English well.

  A.I have felt B. have I felt C. I did feel D. did I feel

选D。本句考倒装结构。在so + 形容词或副词这一短语出现在句首时，要用部分倒装结构。同时在做选择时，还要注意句子的时态，因为后面用的是过去时态I determined ，所以就不能选B（现在完成时态）。

01年30题

I don’t suppose anyone will volunteer, ____?

  A. do I B. don’t I C. will they D. won’t they

 选C。这是一句反意疑问句，所提出的疑问决不可能是针对“我是否这样设想的？”，而一定是“有没有人自愿？”。所以选项就只能集中到C、D，而像suppose，think，believe之类的动词后面带宾语从句时，一般把从句的否定结构提前。所以本句的答案选C。

02年28题

 Mrs Black doesn’t believe her son is able to design a digital camera, ____?

  A. is he B. isn’t he C. doesn’t she D. does she

 选D。本句考反意疑问句。在主从复合句中，一般反意疑问句的疑问部分根据主语来提出，除非是由“I believe/think/suppose......”开始的句子，才要就宾语从句中的内容提问。这是因为逻辑上是决不可能提出“我是否这样想/相信/设想的？”这种愚蠢的问题的。本句并不在这个例外的范畴之中，所以选D。

02年32题

 “You forgot your purse when you went out.” “Good heavens, ____.”

  A. so did I B. so I did C. I did so D. I so did

选B。本句考的是so的用法。以so开头有两种句型，一种是“so + 动词 + 主语”的倒装语序，另一种是“so + 主语 + 动词”的正常语序，两种句型表达的意思是不同的。倒装语序的句型表示“（另一个人）也如此/也一样”，前后两个短句中的主语一般是不一样的。而正常语序的句型只表示赞同前一句的意思，没有任何新的含义。因此，本句选B就是因为前一句讲的是“你昨天出去的时候忘记拿你的钱包了。”第二句要表达的是“天哪，我真的忘记了。” 所以只能用正常语序的句型。

03年38年

 Only when your identity has been checked， ____.

  A. you are allowed in B. you will be allowed in

  C. will you allow in D. will you be allowed in

选D。本题考倒装结构。only放在句首，主句必须用部分倒装结构。另外，根据意思，还要考虑到you与allow in是动宾关系，所以用被动形式。

04年31题

Bill’s aim is to inform the viewers that cigarette advertising on TV is illegal, ____?

  A. isn’t it B. is it C. isn’t he D. is he

 选A。这题考反意疑问句。反意疑问句在一般情况下，应该跟主句的主谓语相一致。本句的主语是Bill’s aim，所以应该选A而非C。

04年41题

 ____ snacks and drinks, but they also brought cards for entertainment when they had a picnic in the forest.

  A. Not only they brought B. Not only did they bring

  C. Not only brought they D. Not only they did bring

选B。本题考倒装结构。当not only出现在句首时，我们要用部分倒装结构，所以选B。

04年（春）31题

 There is no light in the dormitory. They must have gone to the lecture, ____?

  A. didn’t they B. don’t they C. mustn’t they D. haven’t they

选D。本题考反意疑问句。因为前半句中的must have gone是一种猜测的用法，所以在反意疑问时，不用情态动词must，而要用当作真实的动作来问。must have done可以是对过去动作的一种猜测，也可以是对一个完成的动作的猜测。根据上下文可以看出，这里是对完成时态的猜测，前面一句用的是“There is no light...”，所以选D。

05年（春）30题

. On top of the books ____ the photo album you’re looking for.

  A. is B. are C. has D. have

选A。本题考倒装结构。当介词短语放在句首时，我们要用全部倒装结构，并根据上下文，可以知道全句的意思为“你正在找的照相本在那些书的上面。”主语是单数，所以选is。

05年29题

 There was a loud scream from the backstage immediately after the concert ended, ____?

  A. wasn’t there B. was there C. didn’t it D. did it

 选A。本题考反意疑问句。反意疑问句一般跟主句的主谓一致。因为本句的主句是there be结构，所以反意疑问句就跟there be一致，因此选A。

05年39题

Never before ____ in greater need of modern public transport than it is today.

  A. has this city been B. this city has been C.was this city D. this city was

 选A。本题考倒装结构。否定词放在句首，应该选用部分倒装结构，而且“从来也不”应该是现在完成时态。

06年（春）34题

 Just in front of our house ____ with a history of 1,000 years.

  A. does a tall tree stand B. stands a tall tree

  C. a tall tree is standing D. a tall tree stands

选B。本题考倒装句。因为句子是以介词短语开头，主语是名词，所以我们要用全部倒装结构。所以只有B是正确的。

07年31题

 “How was the televised debate last night?”   “Super! Rarely ____ so much media attention.”

  A. a debate attracted B. did a debate attract

C. a debate did attract D. attracted a debate

选B。因为句首是否定词的时候，我们要用部分倒装结构，所以B是正确答案。

语法讲座：连词和状语从句

一、连词

1．并列连词

    用来连接两个并列成分（词、短语或句子）的连词是并列连词。

 A)表示对等关系的连词主要有and, both...and..., not only...but also..., not only... but ......as well,  nor, neither, neither... nor..., not... or...。

  eg. The policeman blew his whistle and the car stopped.

     Turn the handle to the right and the box will open. (= If ......)

     I have not said that before, nor will I ever say so in the future.

 B)表示转折关系的连词主要有but, however, neverthe less,  (and) yet, (but) still, while。

  eg. I enjoy crime stories, but it doesn’t mean that I will commit a crime myself.

     Tim was very tired, however, he kept on working.

     It may rain, nevertheless, we will start on our trip.

     There seems little chance for him, but still he doesn’t want to give up.

 C)表示选择关系的连词主要有or, either... or..., whether... or..., otherwise。

   eg. Either you leave the house, or I’ll call the police.

      Hurry up, or/otherwise, you’ll miss the train. (= Unless......)

 D)表示因果关系的连词主要有for, so, therefore。

   eg. It must be very cold outside, for the river is frozen over.

      I was absent minded, so I didn’t hear the teacher’s instruction.

      The old woman expected her son would come back, therefore, she left the door unlocked.

2．从属连词

    从属连词可以引导各种从句，它们的功能就是把主句和从句连接在一起，但是在学习的时候千万要注意，与汉语有所不同，英语中主句和从句之间，一般只要用一个连词就可以了，这就是为什么我们在英语中“因为”，就不好再用“所以”，用了“虽然”就不好再用“但是”的道理。当然有些原本是由两个部分构成的连词不包括在内，如：both... and...；not only..., but also... ；hardly... when...等

很多从属连词还有自己的意思。所以在学习从句的时候，掌握连词的正确使用是十分重要的。因为我们下面会分别讨论各种从句，所以从属连词的内容就放到各种从句中再详细讨论学习。

二、状语从句

1．时间状语从句

 A)常用连词：when, whenever, while, as, before, after, till, until, since, as soon as, once, hardly...when, no sooner... than, by the time, each time, every time, the moment, the first time等。

  eg. Phone me whenever you meet with problems.

     As days went by, it was getting colder and colder.

     Once you master the rules, it will become very easy.

     By the time he reached the airport, the plane had already taken off.

     Every time we go on a picnic it rains.

     You are sure to recognize the man the moment you see him.

     The first time the director saw her, she was quarrelling with her classmates.

 B)复习要点：

a)注意时间状语从句中，一般要用现在时态代替将来时态。

  b)连词until的用法

     eg. Wait there until I arrive..

        Don’t leave there until I arrive.

  c)when可连接并列句，意思为“就在那时”。

     eg. Jasmine was holidaying in a wildlife park when she was bitten by on the leg by a bear.

        He was about to tell me the secret when someone patted him on the shoulder.

  d)while可连接并列句，意思为“而......”。

     eg. The southerners eat rice while the northerners like noodles.

2．地点状语从句

 A)连词：where, wherever

   eg. I’ll pick you up where you get off the bus.

      Mold grows quickly wherever it is warm and wet.

      Where/Wherever there is water, there is life.

 B)注意地点状语从句和定语从句的区别

    eg. Go back where you came from.

       Go back to the place where you came from.

  试译：他突然发现自己又回到了原来出发的地方了。

      用定语从句：He suddenly found that he was back to the place where he had started.

      用状语从句：He suddenly found that he was back where he had started.

3．原因状语从句

 连词：because, since, as, now that

   eg. We were late because there was a lot of traffic on the way.

      Since it’s Sunday today, there’re more people in the market..

      As she has no car, she can’t get there easily.

      Now that you are tired, you must take a rest.

   注意，在回答用Why提问的句子和强调句型（It is ... that）时，一般只用because，因为在这些连词中，because 最强调原因，而since, as, now that以及并列连词for所讲的原因，要么是双方都已经知道的原因，要么并不是直接原因。

4．目的状语从句

 A)连词：that, so that, in order that

  eg. He is keeping quiet that he may not disturb his father.

     Bring it closer so that I may/can see it better.

     He studied harder in order that he might catch up with his classmates.

 B)目的状语从句可以用in order to或so as to转换。

  eg. I got up early so that I might catch the early bus.

→ I got up early in order to catch the early bus.

 C)在目的状语从句中，动词前一般要用can, could, may, might等助动词，有时也可用will或would。

5．结果状语从句

A)连词：that, so that, so... that, such...that

   eg. What have I done that you should be so angry with me?

      The boy climbed higher, so that he saw the roof of the building.

      The moonlight was so bright that we didn’t need a flashlight.

      It was such a lovely day that we decided to go for a picnic.

 B)注意so... that与such... that的不同用法。

  用such...that的句型是：such + adj. + n. that...

用so...that的句型是：so +adj./adv. that...。但是so...that的句型也可以在that前用名词，但只能是可数名词的单数（词序是：so + adj. + a + n. that...）。此外当句型中的形容词是many, much, few, little（少）时，也只能用so...that的句型。

eg. He is such a clever boy/so clever a boy that he can solve these problems very fast.

   There are so many people here that we don’t have enough seats for them.

 C)that与so that可以引导结果状语从句和目的状语从句，要区别这两种从句，只要看从句中的动词，因为在目的状语从句中，一般要用can, could, may, might等助动词，而结果状语从句中则不用。

  eg. They worked night and day so that they might finish the building ahead of schedule.（目的）

     They worked night and day so that they finished the building ahead of schedule.（结果）

6．条件状语从句

 A)连词：if, unless, as long as, so long as, on condition that, in case等。

  eg. If they don’t get here soon, we will leave without them.

     He will not phone me, unless something unexpected happens.

   注：用if或unless引导的从句经常可以互相转换。上面两个例子就可以变成：

     Unless they get here soon, we will leave without them.

     He will not phone me if there’s nothing unexpected happens.或He will phone me if there’s something unexpected happens.

     You can go out, as long as/so long as/ on condition that you promise to be back before 11 o’clock.

     Call me immediately in case anything happens.

 B)条件状语从句中一般要用现在时态来代替将来时态。

 C)条件状语从句经常可以用“祈使句+ and/ or...”来转换。

     eg. If you listen carefully, there won’t be any difficult points for you.

        →Listen carefully, and there won’t be any difficult points for you.

        No one will understand unless you speak slowly and clearly.

        →Speak slowly and clearly, or no one will understand.

 *D)除了真实条件句之外，还有虚拟条件句，从句中的条件和结果都与事实相反。现在上海市的高考英语中，虚拟条件句只要求理解。

虚拟条件句的主要形式见下表：

	条件状语从句中动词	主句中动词
与现在事实相反	did	should/would/could/might do
与过去事实相反	had dong	should/would/could/might have done
将来的可能性几乎没有	did/ should do/ were to do	should/would/could/might do

7．方式状语从句

 A)连词：as, just as......so, as if, as though。

  eg. The professor told his students to do as he did.

     Just as one gesture can have many different meanings, so many different gestures can have the same meaning.

     He talked as if/though he had a potato in his mouth.

 *B)用as if或as though的句子，经常用虚拟语气，表示与事实相反，动词的用法是：从句动词的动作或状态与主句动词同时发生时，用过去时态，从句动词的动作或状态发生在主句动词之前，用过去完成时态。

  eg. He passed by Jane, as if he didn’t see her.

     He is talking as if he had seen the accident himself.

8．比较状语从句

  连词：as... as, not as/so... as, than。

  比较状语从句在前面形容词副词这一章节中已经讨论过了，此处不在重复。

9．让步状语从句

A)连词：though, although, as, even if, even though, whether... or, whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, however, no matter who/what/which/when/where/how...等。

  eg. Though/Although he is young, he is experienced. = Young as he is, he is experienced.

     Even if it rains or snows, he goes to work by bike.

     They’re not happy even though they have everything they need.

     Things will change, whether you like it or not.

     No matter who/ Whoever says so, it is not true.

     No matter what/ Whatever difficulty he meets with, he won’t give it up.

     No matter which/ Whichever you choose from them, you will be satisfied.

     Come no matter when/ whenever you have time.

     No matter where/ Wherever she goes, they will follow her.

     No matter how/However hare he tried, he couldn’t get it through.

B）注意as引导让步状语从句时的词序：adj./adv./n. /v.+ as +S + V

   eg. Child as he is, he knows a lot.

      Much as I admire him, I don’t like him.

      Try as you may, you can’t succeed without others’ help.

*C)even if, even though也可以引导一个虚拟语气的从句，用法同虚拟条件句。

D)引导让步状语从句时，no matter who = whoever，no matter what = whatever，......。但是没有no matter whether(X)!

高考真题试析：

01年25题

 ____, I have never seen anyone who’s as capable as John.

  A. As long as I have traveled B. Now that I have traveled so much

  C. Much as I have traveled D. As I have traveled so much

选C。本题考的是让步状语从句。句子所要表达的意思是“虽然我经常旅行，我从来也没有见到像约翰那样能干的人。”用as来引导一个让步状语从句表示“虽然”，必须把句子中的状语或表语提到句首，再加as加主谓结构。而as如果放在句首时，意思是“由于”或者“当......的时候”。as long as 引导状语从句，意思是“只要”；now that引导状语从句，意思是“既然”。

02年36题

 He was about to tell me the secret ____ someone patted him on the shoulder.

  A. as B. until C. while D. when

选D。本题考连词when的用法。本句中，when是并列连词，意思是“就在那个时候”，经常用在句型be about to do/ be doing ... when ... 这一句型中，表示“当某个动作就要发生的时候，另一个动作发生了”。

03年33题

 “How far apart do they live?” “ ____ I know, they live in the same neighbourhood.”

  A. As long as B. As far as C. As well as D. As often as

选B。本题考短语连词的意思。as far as意思是“就...（而言）”，而as long as的意思是“只要......”，后面应该连接条件状语从句，用在此句中，意义说不通。

03年34题

 We were in ____ when we left that we forgot the airline tickets.

  A. a rush so anxious B. a such anxious rush

  C. so an anxious rush D. such an anxious rush

选D。要表示“如此...，以至于...”的意思，用so和such都可以，但句型结构不同：“so + 形容词/副词（ + a/an + 名词）+ that 从句”或“such（ + a/an）+形容词/副词 + 名词 + that 从句”。

03年35题

 A good storyteller must be able to hole his listeners’ curiosity ____ he reached the end of the story.

  A. when B. unless C. after D. until

选D。根据题意，用until（直到）句子才符合逻辑。全句的意思是“一个会讲故事的人，必须能一直抓住听众的好奇心，直到他把故事讲完。”

03年42题

 “Dad, I’ve finished my assignment.”

“Good, and ____ you play or watch TV, you mustn’t disturb me.”

A. whenever B. whether C. whatever D. no matter

选B。本题考让步状语whether ... or ...的结构。当whether ... or ...引导一个状语从句时，意思为“无论......还是......”。其他三个选项中，no matter必须后面加上when，where等疑问词才能连接从句。而用whenever或whatever则意思讲不通。

04年38题

 Jasmine was holidaying with her family in a wildlife park ____ she was bitten on the leg by a lion.

  A. when B. while C. since D. once

选A。本题考由when引导的并列句，when在此的意思是“就在那时”。当when作为并列连词的时候，经常用在be about to do/ be doing... when...的句型中。本句正属此例。

04年39题

 Parents should take seriously their children’s requests for sunglasses ____ eye protection is necessary in sunny weather.

  A. because B. though C. unless D. if

选A。根据上下文，可以看出此句要表达的是因果关系，所以选用because。

05年34题

 He transplanted the little tree to the garden ____ it was the best time for it.

  A. where B. when C. that D. until

选B。根据上下文，可以看出这个连词引导的是一个时间状语从句。四个选项中，只有when和until可以连接时间状语从句，但要用until，那么主句应该用否定形式didn’t transplant，所以只能用when。

06年30题

 A dozen ideas were considered ____ the chief architect decided on the design of the building.

  A. because B. before C. whether D. unless

选B。本题考查连词的意思。从两个分句来看，“十几个主意被考虑过了”和“总设计师决定大楼的设计”之间，只有用before才符合逻辑，后面的分句就是时间状语从句。

06年38题

 My parents were quarrelling about me ____ I could not quite tell why.

  A. since B. though C. if D. until

选B。根据上下文，只有选though，整个句子才符合逻辑，“虽然我不知道为什么，但我的父母在为了我而争吵。”though引导的是让步状语从句。

07年33题

 Pop music is such an important part of society ____ it has even influenced our language.

  A. as B. that C. which D. where

选B。因为前面分句中有such一词，显然该用such...that...这一结构。整个句子的意思是“流行音乐是社会中如此重要的一个部分，它甚至影响到我们的语言。

07年38题

 Small sailboats can easily turn over in the water ____ they are not managed carefully.

  A. though B. before C. until D. if

选D。本句考连词的意思。根据上下文，只有用if，句子才讲得通：“如果不当心的话，小船在水里是很容易翻的。“

07年（春）35题

 ____ there is a snowstorm or some other bad weather, the mail always comes on time.

  A. Because B. If C. When D. Unless

选D。根据上下文，只有用unless，才讲得通：“除非暴风雪或其他坏天气，邮件总是准时的。”

07年（春）40题

 ____ tomorrow, our ship will set sail for Macao.

  A. However the weather is like B. However is the weather like

  C. Whatever is the weather like D. Whatever the weather is like

选D。本句考让步状语从句。无论用however或whatever引导，从句中的主语和位于不是倒装语序，B，C排除。讲到天气情况，用了like，那么就只能用whatever了。

语法讲座：名词性从句

一、名词性从句的三类连词

  名词性从句包括主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句和同位语从句。根据这些从句的共同特性，名词性从句的连词主要可以分成三类：that, if/ whether和wh-(疑问词)。

1．如果一个陈述句被用来作为另一个句子的主语、表语、宾语或同位语，那么我们一般要用that作为连词。that本身在句子中没有意思，只起连接作用。

  eg. 陈述句：Science is developing very fast.

     主语从句：It is known to all that science is developing very fast.

     表语从句：The fact is that science is developing very fast.

     宾语从句：Everyone knows that science is developing very fast.

     同位语从句：The fact that science is developing very fast is known to all.

2．如果一个一般疑问句被用来作为另一个句子的主语、表语、宾语或同位语，那么我们要用whether或if作为连词。whether/ if在句子中的意思是“是否”。变成名词性从句后，原来的疑问句的词序要改成陈述句的词序（主语+谓语）。

  eg. 一般疑问句：Shall we have a meeting this afternoon?

     主语从句：Whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon hasn’t been decided yet.

            或：It hasn’t been decided yet whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon.

     表语从句：The question is whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon.

     宾语从句：Do you know whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon?

     同位语从句：None of us can answer the question whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon.

    注意：原来的疑问句词序在从句中都被改变成陈述句的词序，复合句的标点符号由主句的句型决定。

3．如果一个特殊疑问句被用来作为另一个句子主语、表语、宾语或同位语，那么我们就保留原来的疑问词作为连词，这些疑问词的意思也保留在从句中。变成名词性从句之后，原来的疑问句的词序要改成陈述句的词序（主语+谓语）

  eg. 特殊疑问句：Why did the water become smelly?

      主语从句：Why the water became smelly must be found out immediately.

      表语从句：The problem is why the water became smelly.

      宾语从句：Scientists are trying to find out why the water became smelly.

      同位语从句：Scientists are trying to solve the problem why the water became smelly.

    注意：跟由一般疑问句被用来作为名词性从句一样，特殊疑问句作名词性从句时，原来的疑问句词序在从句中都要改变成陈述句的词序，复合句的标点符号也由主句的句型决定。

    此外，还要注意，当特殊疑问句问的主语时，句子的词序就是陈述句的词序，如“Who helped you at that time?”“What happened to him later?”“What’s the matter with you?”“What’s wrong with the computer?”，所以这些句子如充当名词性从句时，词序就不用再变了。

    eg. I don’t know what’s wrong with the computer.

二、主语从句

   eg. That she will go with us is certain.

      Whether he’s coming doesn’t matter too much.

      Who will do the work makes no difference.

      Is what he said really true?

      It’s very clear that we’ll win this time.

1．连接主语从句的连词that一般不能省略。

2．一般只能用whether，而不用if连接主语从句。

3．主语从句经常可以用it当形式主语，而把从句放到后面。

4．用whoever, whatever, whichever引导的主语从句，与who, what, which引导的从句的比较。

    一般来讲，用who, what, which引导的主语从句中的who, what, which可以看作是原来特殊疑问句的疑问词，而whoever, whatever, whichever则不同，从句并不带疑问意义。试比较下面的例句：

  a) Who has been chosen this time is still not clear.

    Whoever breaks this law deserves a fine..

  b) What caused the extinction of the dinosaur greatly puzzled the zoologists.

    Whatever has been decided today must be kept secret.

  c) Which of the products is the best is quite obvious after the test.

    Whichever of them comes in first will receive a prize.

  

请注意区分用whoever, whatever, whichever引导的名词性从句和状语从句，因为引导名词性从句的whoever, whatever, whichever，不能用no matter who, no matter what, no matter which来替换。

   cf. Whatever happened to them will never happen to us again.（主语从句）

      Whatever happens to him, he will keep on working.（状语从句）

三、表语从句

  eg. The trouble is that I have forgotten her telephone number.

     The question is whether it is worth doing.

     That is what I am worrying about.

1．连接表语从句的连词that一般不省略。

2．一般只能用whether，而不用if连接表语从句。

3．表语从句有时也可以用as if, 或because引导。

   eg. The girl looks as if she is going to cry.

      This is because everything that is worth doing is worth doing well.

  注意，用because 引导表语从句，句子的注意一般是it, this, that等，如果用The reason作主语，那么后面的表语从句只能用that引导。

   eg. The reason why he is absent today is that he is ill.

四、宾语从句

  eg. They pretended that they knew how to weave the wonderful material.

     I don’t know whether/ if he will attend the meeting.

     Please tell me where you bought this reference book.

1．连接宾语从句的连词that常省略。

2．可以用whether，也可以用if引导原本是一般疑问句的从句。但如果后面有or...或者or not，还是选用whether。

3．如果宾语从句后面还有宾语补足语，经常要用it作形式宾语，而把宾语从句放到补语的后面。

  eg. All his friends thought it strange that he should be absent from the opening ceremony.

     We have made it a rule that we’ll clean our rooms every Saturday morning.

4．如果主句动词是过去时态，那么宾语从句中的时态要作相应的变化，特别是在间接引语中，除非从句中的内容是“真理”，那就不用变化，保持现在时态。

  cf. He always thinks it is his duty to keep the house clean.

     He thought it was his duty to keep the house clean.

     The teacher told us that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen.

5．主句动词是think, believe, suppose, imagine, expect等的时候，宾语从句中的否定要转移到主句的动词上来。

  eg. 我认为他不会来了。 I don’t think he will come.

      他的教练相信这次他不可能赢了。His coach didn’t believe that he could win this time.

 *又：I think, I believe, I suppose等后加了宾语从句的复合句要改成反意疑问句时，后边的反意疑问句就要与从句中的内容保持一致，而非“don’t I?”

    eg. I think he will win, won’t he?

       I don’t suppose she will be happy, will she?

6．宾语从句也能用whoever, whatever, whichever引导，但是这些连词不能用no matter who等来替换。

  eg. Give it to whoever wants it.

I’ll just say whatever comes into my mind.

     Just buy whichever is cheapest in the supermarket.

  whoever, whatever和whichever引导的宾语从句与who, what, which引导的宾语从句的主要区别与主语从句中的情况相同。

  cf. A) I don’t know who has won the prize.

       The prize will be given to whoever wins the competition.

     B) I’m not quite sure what he wants to know.

        One should stick to whatever one has begun.

     C) I can’t tell which is better between the two.

        You can take whichever you like.

*7．如果是suggest, order, insist, demand, request, advise, require, propose等动词引出的宾语从句，那么从句中的动词要用should +动词原形，should可以省略。

  eg. The engineer suggested that the electronic device (should) be tested at once.

     He insisted that nothing (should) start till he arrived.

五、同位语从句

  eg. The news that we are having a holiday tomorrow is not true.

     He came to the decision that he must act at once.

     I still have my doubt whether the business will do well.

     No one can answer the question who first began to use fire.

1．同位语从句经常跟在fact, news, hope, truth, idea, suggestion, thought, question, order, problem, belief, doubt, fear, question, problem等名词之后，用来表明具体的内容。

2．同位语从句与定语从句的区别：

   cf. A) The information that the film star is seriously ill is not reliable.（同位语从句）

        The information that you got from the internet is not reliable.  （定语从句）

      B) The news that she told me is too good to believe.  （定语从句）

         The news that I have been admitted into the university is too good to believe. (同位语从句)

*3．在suggestion, order, proposal, request, requirement等名词后面的同位语从句中的动词，要用should +动词原形，或省略should直接用动词原形。

  eg. He gave order that the work (should) be started at once.

     They rejected my suggestion that we (should) hire an advertising company.

高考真题试析：

01年35题

 Information has been put forward ____ more middle school graduates will be admitted into universities.

  A. while B. that C. when D. as

选B。本题考连词。事实上that后面所引导的是一个同位语从句，是句首名词information的同位语，讲述了information的具体内容。一般同位语从句的位置是在名词之后，但在本句中，因为句子的主语部分太长，而谓语部分又较短，为了句子的平衡，就把同位语从句放到最后了。

02年35题

 There’s a feeling in me ____ we’ll never know what a UFO is—not ever.

  A. that B. which C. of which D. what

选A。that是连词，引导同位语从句，是名词feeling的同位语，说明feeling的内容。that只起连接作用，在从句中不充当任何成分。

02年39题

 ____ be sent to work there?

  A. Who do you suggest B. Who do you suggest that should

  C. Do you suggest who should D. Do you suggest whom should

选A。本题考动词suggest所跟的宾语从句。我们都知道，在suggest后面的宾语从句中，谓语动词要用should +动词原形（should可以省略）。本句suggest后面宾语从句中谓语动词中的should被省略了。此外，本句无需再用连词，因为当宾语从句是特殊疑问句时，疑问词本身就是连词。

02年40题

 Perseverance is a kind of quality—and that’s ____ it takes to do anything well.

  A. what B. that C. which D. why

选A。本句中的what引导表语从句，并在从句中作takes的宾语，而其他三个选项都不能作从句中takes的宾语。

03年40题

 It is pretty well understood ____ controls the flow of carbon dioxide in and out the atmosphere today.

  A. that B. when C. what D. how

选C。本题考主语从句的连词。这是一个用what引导的主语从句，what在从句中还担当主语。而其他三个选项虽然都可以引导主语从句，但都不能充当主语。所以选C。

03年44题

 There is a new problem involved in the popularity of private cars ____ road conditions need ____.

  A. that; to be improved B. which; to be improved

  C. where; improving D. when; improving

选A。本题考了两个语言点，一是同位语从句，二是need一词的用法。第一空格用that引导的从句，作名词problem的同位语，说明到底是什么问题（即“路况需要改善这个问题”）。而need作为实义动词，可以跟不定式或动名词作宾语（虽然用法略有不同）。仅就第二格而言， to be improved和improving都是正确的。

04年37题

 After Yang Liwei succeeded in circling the earth, ____ our astronauts desire to do is walk in space.

  A. where B. what C. that D. how

选B。本题考名词性从句。由what引导的是主语从句，what是连词，同时还充当从句中谓语动词desire to do的宾语。其他选项都不能担任宾语成分。

04年40题

 A story goes ____ Elizabeth I of England liked nothing more than being surrounded by clever and qualified noblemen at court.

  A. when B. where C. what D. that

选D。本题考同位语从句。因为本句的主语部分太长，而谓语部分又太短，所以同位语就放到了句子的后面。that引导的从句作a story的同位语，说明故事的内容。

05年38题

 ____ in the regulations that you should not tell other people the password of your e-mail account.

  A. What is required B. What requires C. It is required D. It requires

  选C。本题考主语从句。在此句中，it是形式主语，真实主语是that引导的主语从句。而“不告诉别人你的电子账户的密码”与require是动宾关系，所以用C。

06年35题

 One advantage of playing the guitar is ____ it can give you a great deal of pleasure.

  A. how B. why C. that D. when

选C。本题考系动词is后的表语从句。因为从句的句意完整，所以并不用其他连词，只用that就可以了。

06年39题

 He spoke proudly of his part in the game, without mentioning ____ his teammates had done.

  A. what B. which C. why D. while

选A。连词what引导的是宾语从句，同时还充当从句动词had done的宾语。

07年39题

 ____ he referred to in his article was unknown to the general readers.

  A. That B. What C. Whether D. Where

选B。本题考主语从句。What是连接主语从句的连词，同时还充当从句动词referred to的宾语。整个句子的意思是：他在文章中所指的东西，一般的读者是不知道的。“

07年40题

 The traditional view is ____ we sleep because our brain is “programmed” to make us do so.

  A. when B. why C. whether D. that

选D。that引导的是表语从句，因为根据上下文判断，这个表语从句应该原本是一个陈述句，而非疑问句，所以只有用that连接。

语法讲座：定语从句

一、先行词、关系代词和关系副词

1．先行词(antecedent)就是被定语从句所修饰的名词。在英语中，定语从句跟在被修饰词之后，所以被修饰词就是“先行”的词。

  eg. The lovely girl often helps the old lady.

           She lives next door to our school.

     →The lovely girl who lives next door to our school often helps the old lady.

     →The lovely girl often helps the old lady who lives next door to our school.

    The lovely girl often helps the old lady.

          You met her at school yesterday.

     →The lovely girl (whom)you met at school yesterday often helps the old lady.

     →The lovely girl often helps the old lady (whom) you met at school yesterday.

2．连接定语从句，要用关系代词(relative pronoun)和关系副词(relative adverb)。关系代词和关系副词与连接词不完全相同，因为它们除了连接主句和定语从句，还在定语从句中代替一定的成分。

    eg. The book which I bought yesterday is very interesting.

      ← The book is very interesting. I bought the book yesterday.

       I have visited the house where Andersen wrote The Emperor’s New Clothes.

      ←I have visited the house. Andersen wrote The Emperor’s New Clothes in the house.

二、关系代词

1．who的先行词是“人”，在从句中代替主语。

    eg. The student who studies very hard come from Tibet.

       Do you know the man who is talking with our headmaster?

       Those who want to see the film star are waiting patiently at the gate.

  注意：代替从句中的主语，who不能省略。who的单复数由先行词决定。但是要注意“one of +先行词”与“the only one of+先行词”的情况。

  eg. Tom是我们班喜欢打篮球的男生之一。

       Tom is one of the boys in our class who like to play basketball.

     Jane是我们班唯一喜欢打篮球的女生。

       Jane is the only one of the girl in our class who likes to play basketball.

2．whom的先行词是“人”，在从句中代替宾语。

  eg. The friend whom we met in the library can help you with the problem.

     The professor whom you will see later comes from the United Kingdom.

     Do you remember the man whom we worked with together last year?

  whom在从句中经常可以省略，但如果在介词后面，则不能省。

   eg. Do you remember the man with whom we worked together last year?

3．which的先行词是“物”，在从句中可以代替主语或宾语。

  eg. He owns a store which opens 24 hours.

     I am looking for some books which deal with the customs in South Africa.

     Jacky acts the hero in the film which we saw yesterday.

     Can I have a look at the book which you borrowed this morning?

     Have you seen the pen in the museum with which the president signed the peace treaty?

  which代替主语时，不能省略，代替宾语时则经常省略，但如果在介词后面，那么也不能省略。

  which代替主语时，它的单复数由先行词决定。

  which的先行词有时还可以是前面的整个句子，这时它总是看成单数，也不能省略。

    eg. The bamboo stems are hollow, which makes them very light.

       Jenny was late again, which makes her teacher very angry.

4．that的先行词可以是“人”，也可以是“物”，在从句中可以代替主语或者宾语。

  eg. The cut the trees that blocked the view.

     Who is the man that just left from the meeting room?

     The dress that Jessie bought for me suits me perfectly.

  that代替主语时，不能省略，代替宾语时则经常省略。

  that不能用在介词之后。

在一些特定的先行词，如：1）先行词是不定代词如anything, something, all等词，或由all, every, little, any, much, the very等词所修饰；2）先行词前有最高级形容词或序数词所修饰；3）先行词是由and连接的两个词，分别指“人”和“物”的情况下，一般多用that。

  eg. Is there anything that I can do here?

     This is the very present that I am looking forward to.

     This is the hottest summer that we have had in thirty years.

     The second book that he wrote was not as popular as the first one.

     He talked about the teachers and schools that he had visited in Britain.

5．whose的先行词可以是“人”，也可以是“物”，在从句中代替定语。

  eg. The student whose pronunciation is the best in our class has entered for the competition.

     ←The student has entered for the competition. His pronunciation is the best in our class.

     She mentioned a book whose title has slipped my memory.

     ←She mentioned a book. Its title has slipped my memory.

   whose不能省略。如果先行词是“物”，我们也可以用sth. of which代替whose。

    eg. She mentioned a book the title of which slipped my memory.

       ←She mentioned a book. The title of the book slipped my memory.

6．as的先行词是“such+名词”，或者“the same +名词”，在从句中代替主语或者宾语。

  eg. Let children read such books as will make them better and wiser.

      ←Let children read such books. The books will make them better and wiser.

     I have met with the same problem as you have.

        ←You have (met with) the problem. I have met with the same problem.

   as不能省略。

   as的先行词有时还可以是一个句子，这个句子可以放在as之前，也可以放在as之后。

    eg. He succeeded in passing the exam, as I had expected./ As I had expected, he succeeded in passing the exam.

       ←He succeeded in passing the exam. I had expected that he would succeeded in passing the exam.

三、关系副词

1．when的先行词是表示时间的名词，如time, day, year, century等，when在从句中代替时间状语。

  eg. I will never forget the day when I first came to school.

      ←I will never forget the day. I first came to school on that day.

  when一般不能省略。定语从句中，when可以用“介词+which”代替。

     eg. I will never forget the day on which I first came to school.

      The week when we worked in the countryside is unforgettable.

        = The week in which/ during which we worked in the countryside is unforgettable.

  注意：表示时间的名词后面并不都是用when引导的定语从句，也可以是由which或that引导的定语从句。试分析：

    I still remember the day when he arrived in Shanghai.

      ←I still remember the day. He arrived in Shanghai on that day.

    I still remember the day (which/that) we spent together in the lab.

     ←I still remember the day. We spent the day together in the lab.

2．where的先行词是表示地点的名词，如place, room, house, school, factory等，where在从句中代替地点状语。

  eg. This is the village where Lincoln was born.

      ←This is the village. Lincoln was born in the village.

   where一般不能省略。定语从句中，where可以用“介词+which”代替。

   eg. Is there a shop near here where I can buy postcards?

       = Is there a shop near here in which I can buy postcards?

  注意：表示地点的名词后面并不一定都是用where引导的定语从句，也可以是由which或that引导的定语从句。试分析：

    We will visit the factory where his father works.

     ← We will visit the factory. His father works in the factory.

    We will visit the factory which/that was built 100 years ago.

     ← We will visit the factory. It was built 100 years ago.

3．why的先行词是reason。

  eg. Please tell me the reason why he is absent today.

     The principal wanted to know the reason why the teacher became so angry.

   why一般不省略。reason为先行词的时候，也可能是由which或that引导的从句。

   试分析：

    I just can’t believe the reason why the boy failed again.

    I just can’t believe the reason (which/ that) he gave me.

四、限制性和非限制性定语从句

    限制性定语从句跟主句的关系比较密切，如果缺少，对方将不明白你要表达的确切的意思，它跟主句之间不用逗号隔开，中文翻译的时候，常把从句放在名词之前。非限制性定语从句只出现在书面，一般情况下，没有这个定语从句，对方也不会误解，或者说，这类定语从句只是一种补充说明，它与主句之间要用逗号隔开，翻译成中文时，常为两个句子。非限制性定语从句经常是用在先行词是专有名词的时候，或先行词表示的“人”或“物”是“独一无二的”。非限制性定语从句不能用that连接。

  eg. The man who wrote this essay is a journalist.

     Frank, who wrote this essay, is a journalist.

     The earth, which moves round the sun, is a planet.

     A heavenly body which moves round the sun is a planet.

    He lived all his life in a small village where he was born.

    He lived more than a decade in Europe, where he could be in close contact with other famous painters.

    My brother who works in Beijing University will come to visit us.

    My brother, who works in Beijing University, will come to visit us.

    I met Mary, who was my desk-mate in the primary school.

    I met Mary who was my desk-mate in the primary school.

高考真题试析：

01年37题

 He’s got himself into a dangerous situation ____ he is likely to lose control over the plane.

  A. where B. which C. while D. why

选A。这是一个带有定语从句的复合句。关系副词where在定语从句中代替状语，相当于in the situation，整个句子解释为：“他使自己陷入一个危险的状况，在这种状况中，他很可能失去对飞机的控制。”

02年31题

 Alec asked the policeman ____ he worked to contact him whenever there was an accident.

  A. with him B. who C. with whom D. whom

选C。句子中的with whom he worked是定语从句，修饰policeman。在从句中，关系代词whom代替先行词policeman作介词with的宾语。本句的意思是“艾立克请跟他一起工作的那个警察无论何时有事故都要和他联系”。

03年41题

 I can think of many cases ____ students obviously knew a lot of English words and expressions but couldn’t write a good essay.

  A. why B. which C. as D. where

选D。我们选用where，因为在定语从句中，关系副词where代替的是地点状语“in the cases（意思为‘在这些例子中’）”。本题可以用in which代替where，句子也正确。

04年36题

 American women usually identify their best friend as someone ____ they can talk frequently.

  A. who B. as C. about which D. with whom

选D。因为从句所修饰的先行词是“人”，同时从句中的动词talk是不及物动词，要表达“和某人谈话”，必须用talk with这一词组，所以选用D。

04年（春）36题

 A fast food restaurant is the place ____, just as the name suggests, eating is performed quickly.

  A. which B. where C. there D. what

选B。因为在本句中，先行词是place，同时我们还可以看到后面的从句eating is performed quickly不缺主语，或宾语，所以用关系副词where。整个句子的意思是：快餐店，正如它的名字所示，就是一个很快的餐的地方。

05年40题

 If a shop has chairs ____ women can park their men, women will spend more time in the shop.

  A. that B. which C. when D. where

选D。因为先行词chairs，在从句中是女人让男人呆的地方，所以选用关系副词where。

05年（春）34题

 The United States is made up of fifty states, one of ____ is separated from the others by the Pacific Ocean.

  A. them B. those C. which D. whose

选C。从整个句子来分析，这是一个有两个主谓结构的复合句。因为在英语中，逗号不能连接两个分句，所以A, B两个选项都不行。另外，在从句中缺少主语，所以只能用关系代词which，不可以用whose。

06年37题

 In an hour, we can travel to places ____ would have taken our ancestors days to reach.

  A. where B. when C. which D. what

选C。这个定语从句的先行词虽然是places，但是它在定语从句中是作为would have taken的主语，所以要用关系代词which。全句的意思是“只用了一个小时，我们就能到达我们的祖先要花几天的时间才能到的地方。”

07年37题

 His movie won several awards at the film festival, ____ was beyond his wildest dream.

  A. which B. that C. where D. it

选A。后半句的从句的先行词是前面的整个句子，所以只有关系代词which可以用在这里。