语言学复习内容

1.    the research fields of linguistics

Microlinguistics : Phonetics, phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics

Macrolinguistics : Computational linguistics, Discourse analysis, Neurolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Stylistics

Applied linguistics : language acquisition, language teaching, testing, etc.

2.    design features of language: displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability

Displacement: 指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.

例：汤姆去年在美国工作。

Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.

例：龙 / dragon；中方的龙是好的意象；西方的dragon是坏的意象。

Interchangeability: interchangeablity means that any human beging can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 

3.    synchronic/diachronic distinction

• Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary
• Longman Contemporary English Dictionary
• World Englishes
• 《莎士比亚语言研究》
• 《13世纪的中国北方官话》
• 《从古代英语到标准英语》

上面的6个例子中，只有最后一个是历时，其他都是共时。

4.    three capacities of articulation

Pharynx , Mouth, Nose.

5.    structure of a syllable

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. 

6.    open and closed syllables

with/without coda

没有coda是开音节；有coda是闭音节。

7.    Is pinyin a phonetic symbol system?

No, it isn’t.

8.    free/bound morphemes, prefix/suffix

free morphemes

• Can stand alone as words
• A word must contain at least a free morpheme.
• Lexical morphemes

                     ---open class of words

        Functional morphemes

                     ---closed class of words

bound morphemes

• Cannot stand alone; only as parts of words
• derivational morphemes

                 ---new words; grammatical category change

               inflectional morphemes (8)

                 ---grammatical function change

 

1. If a man’s wife is beautiful, two eyes are not enough for him.
2. Take time to deliberate; but when the time for action arrives, stop thinking and go in.
3. The writer liked joking and has taken things seriously.
4. One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse.

 

Prefix

                  前缀，insufficent

 

Suffix

                  后缀，successful

9.    word formation process: compounding, derivation, acronym, initialism

Compounding:

≥2 free morphemes

Head---word class

Derivation:

free morpheme + derivational morpheme

un-, -ful, -less, -ness, …

Acronym:

NATO, OPEC

Initialism:

DVD, GPS, WTO

10.    Is putonghua a dialect? Why or why not?

Yes, it is. Putonghua is a standard language and the standard language is a dialect. So Putonghua is a dialect.

 

11.    social dialect: factors

Used by people belonging to particular social classes (career, age, sex, etc.)

12.    How should we learn English words referring to morphology?

morphology是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。
形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。
曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；
派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。

13.    ＊syntagmatic/paradigmatic relation

1. Syntagmatic: horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, linear sequences; positional relation; in order; smaller composing larger linguistic forms
2. Paradigmatic: vertical relationship between forms occupying the same position; substitution relation

 

Fit 横着是syntagmatic，有固定顺序，不能随意替换3个字母的顺序位置；

Bit，fit和hit等的首字母是可以替换的。

14.    ＊taboos and euphemisms

• Taboo: a word that people are reluctant to use
• Euphemism: a more acceptable substitute of a taboo word
• Taboos/euphemisms are developing.

例:

死亡/去世

Taboo：死亡

Euphemism：去世

用委婉语“去世”代替禁忌语“死亡”的用法。

15.    ＊language and gender

• Men and women speak differently
• Men and women are spoken about differently

An example

     Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball. …Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, …I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. … I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome!

Pride and Prejudice

 

• Compared with men, women tend to use such adverbs. The overuse of these words imply that…
• Other possible features of women’s language

1. more tag questions.
2. more statement questions with a rising intonation at the end.
3. linguistic behavior is less direct and more polite.

例如上面的most, quite, excessively. 等很多副词的使用。

 

16. 语言学和工作学习有什么关系？

1.研究语义学、语用学这些，可以更好地分析人类语言的使用规则，对于实现人工智能是有好处的。别的不说，深入研究语言的这些规则，就可以帮助我们设计出更高级的翻译软件。微软在Skype当中加入了实时翻译，谷歌也有相机实时翻译，但是现在的水平，尤其汉语与欧洲语言的对译，存在不少问题，所以需要语言学来指导
2.复活死语言。对于词源学和语言谱系学的研究，让人类复活了好几门已经失传的死语言，最经典的莫过于吐火罗语了，也就是季羡林学习的语言，就是他的授业恩师西格教授和西格灵教授通过比较语言学和语言谱系学复活的。而复活死语言可以用来解读那些使用这些语言的古老文书，对于历史学和文献学具有重大的用处。

Requirement:
Give an example/examples to each concept/term, and explain the example(s) relating it/them to the concept/term.