cooking

Cooking or cookery is the art, science, and craft of preparing food. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends. Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though archaeological evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques.

Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi [fungus的复数]. Cooks also use water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine or spirits [烈酒]. Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called proteins, carbohydrates and fats. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules.

Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide [双糖体], and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot [竹芋] and potato.

糖类水解指双糖或者多糖在稀酸的催化下，最终水解为葡萄糖或果糖的反应。人体代谢及生物发酵中常有。

Types of fat include vegetable oils, animal products such as butter and lard, as well as fats from grains, including maize and flax [亚麻] oils.

Quote from the episode The Luminous Fish Effect
Penny: This is the best cobbler [脆皮水果馅饼] I've ever had.
Mary Cooper: It was always Sheldon's favorite. You know what the secret ingredient is?
Penny: Love?
Mary Cooper: Lard [猪油].

The definition of bring home the bacon is, essentially, to earn money, particularly as the head of one's family or the more successful partner in a marriage. Specifically, the Idioms Dictionary lists the following for meanings: "to go out and earn a living or earn money for the family," "to be successful or get an accomplishment," "to return home with a reward at the end of the day," or "to achieve something you had set out to achieve." [link]

Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk, eggs and egg whites, contains substantial amounts of protein. Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.

Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking.

  • elute: remove (adsorbed material) from an adsorbent by means of a solvent.

There are very many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the end result because some foods are more appropriate to some methods than others. Some major hot cooking techniques include:

  • Roasting
    • Roasting – Barbecuing – Grilling/Broiling – Rotisserie – Searing
  • Baking
    • Baking – Baking Blind – Flashbaking
  • Boiling
    • Boiling – Blanching – Braising – Coddling – Double steaming – Infusion – Poaching – Pressure cooking – Simmering – Smothering – Steaming – Steeping – Stewing – Stone boiling – Vacuum flask cooking
  • Frying
    • Fry – Air frying — Deep frying – Gentle frying - Hot salt frying – Hot sand frying – Pan frying – Pressure frying – Sautéing – Shallow frying – Stir frying — Vacuum frying
  • Steaming
    • Steaming works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporise into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food. By many it is considered a healthy form of cooking, holding nutrients within the vegetable or meat being cooked.
  • En papillote – The food is put into a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam the food.
  • Smoking
    • Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.

Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if the food is eaten raw. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and Toxoplasma gondii.

Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Campylobacter, viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as Entamoeba histolytica. Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water. 未煮熟或准备不良的食物引起的食物中毒和其他疾病可能由细菌引起，如大肠杆菌、鼠伤寒沙门菌和弯曲杆菌的致病菌株、诺如病毒等病毒和溶组织内阿米巴等原生动物。细菌、病毒和寄生虫可能通过沙拉、未煮熟或煮熟的肉类以及生水引入。

The sterilizing effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some food spoilage bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum or Bacillus cereus can form spores that survive boiling, which then germinate and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once. 烹饪的杀菌效果取决于温度、烹饪时间和使用的技术。一些食物腐败细菌，如肉毒梭菌或蜡样芽孢杆菌，可以形成孢子，在煮沸后存活，然后在食物冷却后发芽和再生。这使得多次加热熟食不安全。

Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw cereal grains are hard to digest, while kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at 100 °C (212 °F). 烹饪提高了许多生吃时不可食用或有毒的食物的消化率。例如，生谷物很难消化，而芸豆在生食或烹调不当时会有毒，因为存在植物血凝素，在100°C（212°F）下烹调至少10分钟会使其失活。

Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "Danger zone" temperature range from 40 to 140 °F (4 to 60 °C), food therefore should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination, are good practices in food preparation. Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones. Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination. 食品安全取决于食品的安全制备、处理和储存。食品腐败细菌在40至140°F（4至60°C）的“危险区”温度范围内繁殖，因此，食品不应在此温度范围内储存。清洗双手和表面，特别是在处理不同肉类时，以及将生食品与熟食品分开以避免交叉污染，是食品制备中的良好做法。在塑料砧板上制备的食物可能比木制砧板更不容易滋生细菌。清洗和消毒砧板，尤其是在与生肉、家禽或海鲜一起使用后，可降低污染风险。

Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables. 生食主义的支持者认为，烹饪食物会增加对食物或健康有害影响的风险。他们指出，在烹调含有维生素C的蔬菜和水果时，维生素C会溶出烹调水中，并通过氧化降解。削皮蔬菜也可以大大降低维生素C的含量，尤其是在土豆的情况下，大多数维生素C都在皮肤中。然而，研究表明，在类胡萝卜素的特定情况下，熟食蔬菜比生蔬菜吸收的比例更大。

German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients. Sulforaphane, a glucosinolate breakdown product, which may be found in vegetables such as broccoli, has been shown to be protective against prostate cancer, however, much of it is destroyed when the vegetable is boiled. 德国2003年的研究表明，当饮食中含有大量的生蔬菜时，可以显著降低患乳腺癌的风险。作者将这种影响归因于耐热植物营养素。萝卜硫素是一种硫苷分解产物，可能存在于西兰花等蔬菜中，已被证明对前列腺癌具有保护作用，然而，当蔬菜煮沸时，大部分会被破坏。

六级/考研单词: ingredient, grill, stove, oven, million, commerce, pottery, derive, organism, vegetation, grain, nut, herb, spice, dairy, mushroom, molecule, carbohydrate, manipulate, cereal, flour, episode, luminous, penny, idiom, dictionary, edible, vitamin, norm, metabolism, manufacture, thereby, liver, indispensable, calcium, sodium, sulfur, copper, prone, oxide, roast, fry, barbecue, innovate, microwave, differ, affection, vacuum, shallow, pan, nearby, heal, flavor, exposition, seldom, bacteria, virus, parasite, infect, unite, poison, strain, spoil, digest, toxic, harbor, poultry, contaminate, detriment, degrade, peel, breast, author, attribute, breakdown

萝卜硫素由硫代葡萄糖苷(硫苷)经植物体内黑芥子酶水解所得。在西兰花、芥蓝、北方圆红萝卜等十字花科植物中含量较丰富，是常见的抗氧化剂，也是蔬菜中已知的抗癌效果最好的物质。

白菜，十字花科芸薹属植物，有“菜中之王”的美称。白菜原产于中国北方，南北各地均有栽培，十九世纪传入日本、欧美各国。鲁迅 《朝花夕拾·藤野先生》“北京的白菜运往 浙江 ，便用红头绳系住菜根，倒挂在水果店头，尊为‘胶菜。” 

头条上有人说西兰花broccoli比菜花cauliflower格调高，我很不以为然。东来顺还在，西来顺没了。

“东来顺掌柜的姓丁，起先是推车子下街卖铛爆羊肉的，后来因为手艺好，分量给得足，小买卖越做越兴旺，可就改在东安市场里摆个摊子了。手底下既干净，人又随和，再加上羊肉筋头码头全部剔掉，所以顾客如云，生意鼎盛，到了中晚饭口上，大家要排队才能挨得上座儿。而且一个人也实在忙不过来，于是跟牛街姓赵的开起东来顺来了。由二层楼扩充到四层楼，连屋顶都卖座，这纯粹是人家丁老板苦心孤诣惨淡经营的成果。东来顺是个不忘本的铺眼，尽管买卖升发了，可是对着吉祥茶园后灶的火房子，仍旧砌了两排砖桌石凳，凡是贫苦大众，到那儿吃羊肉饺子、牛肉大葱、羊肉白菜，油足肉多，一律四分钱十个。特号食量的人，四十个饺子，再来一碗羊杂汤也尽够了。您要是在楼上吃，虽然饺子的肉是上肉做馅，可是那就要卖您四毛钱十个了。人家默默行善，恤老怜贫，所以买卖越做越大越发旺。” 【链接】

“天津吃萝卜是一种风气。五十年代初，我到天津，一个同学的父亲请我们到天华景听曲艺。座位之前有一溜长案，摆得满满的，除了茶壶茶碗，瓜子花生米碟子，还有几大盘切成薄片的青萝卜。听“玩意儿”吃萝卜，此风为别处所无。天津谚云：“吃了萝卜喝热茶，气得大夫满街爬”，吃萝卜喝茶，此风亦为别处所无。” 【链接】

posted @ 2022-08-23 10:21  Fun_with_Words  阅读(218)  评论(0)  编辑  收藏  举报

 张牌。