互联网及相关网络简史
互联网及相关网络简史
介绍 Vint Cerf
In 1973, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) initiated a research program to investigate techniques and technologies for interlinking packet networks of various kinds. The objective was to develop communication protocols which would allow networked computers to communicate transparently across multiple, linked packet networks. This was called the Internetting project and the system of networks which emerged from the research was known as the “Internet.” The system of protocols which was developed over the course of this research effort became known as the TCP/IP Protocol Suite, after the two initial protocols developed: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
1973 年，美国国防高级研究计划局 (DARPA) 启动了一项研究计划，以研究用于互连各种分组网络的技术和技术。目标是开发允许联网计算机在多个链接的分组网络之间透明地通信的通信协议。这被称为互联网项目，而从研究中产生的网络系统被称为“互联网”。在这项研究工作过程中开发的协议系统被称为 TCP/IP 协议套件，这是在开发了两个初始协议之后：传输控制协议 (TCP) 和互联网协议 (IP)。
In 1986, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) initiated the development of the NSFNET which, today, provides a major backbone communication service for the Internet. With its 45 megabit per second facilities, the NSFNET carries on the order of 12 billion packets per month between the networks it links. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the U.S. Department of Energy contributed additional backbone facilities in the form of the NSINET and ESNET respectively. In Europe, major international backbones such as NORDUNET and others provide connectivity to over one hundred thousand computers on a large number of networks. Commercial network providers in the U.S. and Europe are beginning to offer Internet backbone and access support on a competitive basis to any interested parties.
1986 年，美国国家科学基金会 (NSF) 发起了 NSFNET 的开发，如今它为 Internet 提供了主要的骨干通信服务。NSFNET 凭借其每秒 45 兆比特的设施，每月在其链接的网络之间传输大约 120 亿个数据包。美国国家航空航天局 (NASA) 和美国能源部分别以 NSINET 和 ESNET 的形式提供了额外的骨干设施。在欧洲，NORDUNET 等主要国际骨干网提供与大量网络上超过十万台计算机的连接。美国和欧洲的商业网络供应商开始在竞争的基础上向任何感兴趣的各方提供互联网骨干网和接入支持。
“Regional” support for the Internet is provided by various consortium networks and “local” support is provided through each of the research and educational institutions. Within the United States, much of this support has come from the federal and state governments, but a considerable contribution has been made by industry. In Europe and elsewhere, support arises from cooperative international efforts and through national research organizations. During the course of its evolution, particularly after 1989, the Internet system began to integrate support for other protocol suites into its basic networking fabric. The present emphasis in the system is on multiprotocol interworking, and in particular, with the integration of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols into the architecture.
互联网的“区域”支持由各种联盟网络提供，“本地”支持由每个研究和教育机构提供。在美国，这种支持大部分来自联邦和州政府，但工业界也做出了相当大的贡献。在欧洲和其他地方，支持来自国际合作努力和国家研究组织。在其演变过程中，尤其是 1989 年之后，Internet 系统开始将对其他协议套件的支持集成到其基本网络结构中。该系统目前的重点是多协议互通，特别是将开放系统互连 (OSI) 协议集成到体系结构中。
Both public domain and commercial implementations of the roughly 100 protocols of TCP/IP protocol suite became available in the 1980’s. During the early 1990’s, OSI protocol implementations also became available and, by the end of 1991, the Internet has grown to include some 5,000 networks in over three dozen countries, serving over 700,000 host computers used by over 4,000,000 people.
大约 100 种 TCP/IP 协议套件协议的公共领域和商业实现都在 1980 年代可用。在 1990 年代初期，OSI 协议实现也变得可用，到 1991 年底，Internet 已经发展到包括超过 30 个国家的约 5,000 个网络，为超过 4,000,000 人使用的超过 700,000 台主机提供服务。
A great deal of support for the Internet community has come from the U.S. Federal Government, since the Internet was originally part of a federally-funded research program and, subsequently, has become a major part of the U.S. research infrastructure. During the late 1980’s, however, the population of Internet users and network constituents expanded internationally and began to include commercial facilities. Indeed, the bulk of the system today is made up of private networking facilities in educational and research institutions, businesses and in government organizations across the globe.
对互联网社区的大力支持来自美国联邦政府，因为互联网最初是联邦政府资助的研究计划的一部分，后来成为美国研究基础设施的重要组成部分。然而，在 1980 年代后期，互联网用户和网络成员的数量在国际上扩大并开始包括商业设施。事实上，当今系统的大部分是由全球教育和研究机构、企业和政府组织中的私有网络设施组成的。
The Coordinating Committee for Intercontinental Networks (CCIRN), which was organized by the U.S. Federal Networking Council (FNC) and the European Reseaux Associees pour la Recherche Europeenne (RARE), plays an important role in the coordination of plans for government- sponsored research networking. CCIRN efforts have been a stimulus for the support of international cooperation in the Internet environment.
Internet Technical Evolution
由美国联邦网络委员会 (FNC) 和欧洲研究协会 (RARE) 组织的洲际网络协调委员会 (CCIRN) 在协调政府资助的研究网络计划方面发挥着重要作用. CCIRN 的努力已成为支持互联网环境中国际合作的动力。
互联网技术演进 Internet Technical Evolution
Over its fifteen year history, the Internet has functioned as a collaboration among cooperating parties. Certain key functions have been critical for its operation, not the least of which is the specification of the protocols by which the components of the system operate. These were originally developed in the DARPA research program mentioned above, but in the last five or six years, this work has been undertaken on a wider basis with support from Government agencies in many countries, industry and the academic community. The Internet Activities Board (IAB) was created in 1983 to guide the evolution of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to provide research advice to the Internet community.
在其 15 年的历史中，互联网作为合作方之间的协作发挥了作用。某些关键功能对其运行至关重要，其中最重要的是系统组件运行的协议规范。这些最初是在上述 DARPA 研究计划中开发的，但在过去的五六年里，在许多国家的政府机构、工业界和学术界的支持下，这项工作已经在更广泛的基础上进行。互联网活动委员会 (IAB) 成立于 1983 年，旨在指导 TCP/IP 协议套件的发展并向互联网社区提供研究建议。
During the course of its existence, the IAB has reorganized several times. It now has two primary components: the Internet Engineering Task Force and the Internet Research Task Force. The former has primary responsibility for further evolution of the TCP/IP protocol suite, its standardization with the concurrence of the IAB, and the integration of other protocols into Internet operation (e.g. the Open Systems Interconnection protocols). The Internet Research Task Force continues to organize and explore advanced concepts in networking under the guidance of the Internet Activities Board and with support from various government agencies.
在其存在过程中，IAB 已多次重组。它现在有两个主要组成部分：互联网工程任务组和互联网研究任务组。前者主要负责 TCP/IP 协议组的进一步发展，在 IAB 的同意下实现标准化，以及将其他协议集成到 Internet 操作中（例如，开放系统互连协议）。互联网研究工作组在互联网活动委员会的指导下和各政府机构的支持下，继续组织和探索先进的网络概念。
A secretariat has been created to manage the day-to-day function of the Internet Activities Board and Internet Engineering Task Force. IETF meets three times a year in plenary and its approximately 50 working groups convene at intermediate times by electronic mail, teleconferencing and at face-to-face meetings. The IAB meets quarterly face-to-face or by videoconference and at intervening times by telephone, electronic mail and computer-mediated conferences.
已成立一个秘书处来管理互联网活动委员会和互联网工程任务组的日常职能。IETF 每年召开三次全体会议，其大约 50 个工作组在中间时间通过电子邮件、电话会议和面对面会议召开会议。IAB 每季度召开一次面对面会议或视频会议，并在中间时间通过电话、电子邮件和以计算机为媒介的会议召开会议。
Two other functions are critical to IAB operation: publication of documents describing the Internet and the assignment and recording of various identifiers needed for protocol operation. Throughout the development of the Internet, its protocols and other aspects of its operation have been documented first in a series of documents called Internet Experiment Notes and, later, in a series of documents called Requests for Comment (RFCs). The latter were used initially to document the protocols of the first packet switching network developed by DARPA, the ARPANET, beginning in 1969, and have become the principal archive of information about the Internet. At present, the publication function is provided by an RFC editor.
另外两个功能对 IAB 操作至关重要：发布描述 Internet 的文档以及分配和记录协议操作所需的各种标识符。在 Internet 的整个发展过程中，它的协议和其他操作方面首先被记录在称为 Internet Experiment Notes 的一系列文档中，后来又被记录在称为 Requests for Comment (RFC) 的一系列文档中。后者最初用于记录 DARPA 于 1969 年开始开发的第一个分组交换网络 ARPANET 的协议，并已成为有关 Internet 信息的主要档案。目前，发布功能由 RFC 编辑器提供。
The recording of identifiers is provided by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) who has delegated one part of this responsibility to an Internet Registry which acts as a central repository for Internet information and which provides central allocation of network and autonomous system identifiers, in some cases to subsidiary registries located in various countries. The Internet Registry (IR) also provides central maintenance of the Domain Name System (DNS) root database which points to subsidiary distributed DNS servers replicated throughout the Internet. The DNS distributed database is used, inter alia, to associate host and network names with their Internet addresses and is critical to the operation of the higher level TCP/IP protocols including electronic mail.
标识符的记录由 Internet 号码分配机构 (IANA) 提供，该机构已将此职责的一部分委托给 Internet 注册机构，该注册机构充当 Internet 信息的中央存储库，并在某些情况下提供网络和自治系统标识符的中央分配向位于不同国家的附属登记处提交案件。互联网注册 (IR) 还提供域名系统 (DNS) 根数据库的集中维护，该数据库指向在整个互联网中复制的附属分布式 DNS 服务器。DNS 分布式数据库尤其用于将主机和网络名称与其 Internet 地址相关联，并且对于包括电子邮件在内的更高级别 TCP/IP 协议的操作至关重要。
There are a number of Network Information Centers (NICs) located throughout the Internet to serve its users with documentation, guidance, advice and assistance. As the Internet continues to grow internationally, the need for high quality NIC functions increases. Although the initial community of users of the Internet were drawn from the ranks of computer science and engineering, its users now comprise a wide range of disciplines in the sciences, arts, letters, business, military and government administration.
Related Networks
互联网上有许多网络信息中心 (NIC)，为用户提供文档、指导、建议和帮助。随着互联网在国际上不断发展，对高质量 NIC 功能的需求也在增加。尽管最初的互联网用户社区来自计算机科学和工程领域，但它的用户现在涵盖了科学、艺术、文学、商业、军事和政府管理领域的广泛学科。
相关网络
In 1980-81, two other networking projects, BITNET and CSNET, were initiated. BITNET adopted the IBM RSCS protocol suite and featured direct leased line connections between participating sites. Most of the original BITNET connections linked IBM mainframes in university data centers. This rapidly changed as protocol implementations became available for other machines. From the beginning, BITNET has been multi-disciplinary in nature with users in all academic areas. It has also provided a number of unique services to its users (e.g., LISTSERV). Today, BITNET and its parallel networks in other parts of the world (e.g., EARN in Europe) have several thousand participating sites. In recent years, BITNET has established a backbone which uses the TCP/IP protocols with RSCS-based applications running above TCP.
在 1980-81 年，启动了另外两个网络项目，即 BITNET 和 CSNET。BITNET 采用 IBM RSCS 协议套件，并在参与站点之间提供直接租用线路连接。大多数最初的 BITNET 连接都连接了大学数据中心的 IBM 大型机。随着协议实现可用于其他机器，这种情况迅速改变。从一开始，BITNET 就具有多学科性质，用户遍及所有学术领域。它还为其用户提供了许多独特的服务（例如，LISTSERV）。今天，BITNET 及其在世界其他地区的并行网络（例如，欧洲的 EARN）拥有数千个参与站点。近年来，BITNET 建立了一个使用 TCP/IP 协议的骨干网，并在 TCP 之上运行基于 RSCS 的应用程序。
CSNET was initially funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to provide networking for university, industry and government computer science research groups. CSNET used the Phonenet MMDF protocol for telephone-based electronic mail relaying and, in addition, pioneered the first use of TCP/IP over X.25 using commercial public data networks. The CSNET name server provided an early example of a white pages directory service and this software is still in use at numerous sites. At its peak, CSNET had approximately 200 participating sites and international connections to approximately fifteen countries.
CSNET 最初由美国国家科学基金会 (NSF) 资助，为大学、工业和政府计算机科学研究团体提供网络。CSNET 使用 Phonenet MMDF 协议进行基于电话的电子邮件中继，此外，还率先使用商业公共数据网络在 X.25 上使用 TCP/IP。CSNET 名称服务器提供了白页目录服务的早期示例，并且该软件仍在许多站点中使用。在鼎盛时期，CSNET 拥有大约 200 个参与站点和与大约 15 个国家/地区的国际连接。
In 1987, BITNET and CSNET merged to form the Corporation for Research and Educational Networking (CREN). In the Fall of 1991, CSNET service was discontinued having fulfilled its important early role in the provision of academic networking service. A key feature of CREN is that its operational costs are fully met through dues paid by its member organizations.
1987 年，BITNET 和 CSNET 合并形成研究和教育网络公司 (CREN)。1991 年秋季，CSNET 服务在提供学术网络服务方面发挥了重要的早期作用，因此停止服务。CREN 的一个主要特点是其运营成本完全通过其成员组织支付的会费来支付。
