高中语法_句法篇

高中语法_句法篇

一、名词性从句_宾语从句

宾语从句即一句话做宾语，按引导词分为三大类：that引导的宾语从句;whether/if引导的宾语从句；特殊疑问词引导的宾语从句。

01. that引导的宾语从句。

陈述句充当宾语时，在陈述句之前加that，that无实际意义，在句中不作成分，可省略。

I can study English well。我能把英语学好。
→ I believe that I can study English well. 我相信我能把英语学好。
I’ve come back. 我已经回来了。
→ She knows that I’ve come back. 她知道我已经回来了。

02. if/whether引导的宾语从句。

一般疑问句充当宾语时，需要在疑问句句首加 if 或者 whether，并把一般疑问句改为陈述句语序。

if 或 whether 意为 “是否” ，在句中不做成分，但不可以省略。

Are you a doctor? 你是一名医生吗？
→ I want to know if you are a doctor. 我想知道你是否是一名医生。
Have you finished your work? 你的工作做完了吗？
→ I want to know if you have finished you work. 我想知道你的工作是否做完了。

对于这部分if或者whether引导的宾语从句关键就在于首先要加上一个词 if 或者whether 其次要把疑问句语序改为陈述句语序。
Will you go abroad? 你会出国吗？
→ I want to know if you will go abroad. 我想知道你是否会出国。
Are you listening to me? 你在听我说吗？
→ I want to know if you are listening to me? 我想知道你是否在听我说。

在宾语从句中能用if的位置都可以用whether。
Do you love me? 你爱我嘛？
→ I want to know if you love me. 我想知道你是否爱我。

Do you love me? Do放在宾语从句里就没有do了,因为在宾语从句要陈述句语序。陈述句里你爱我就直接是You love me。疑问句当中为了要构成一个疑问句的语序所以才给它凭空加了一个do。那么变成陈述句语序的时候就要把那个do去掉。
Dose Mary need any help? Mary需要我的帮助吗？
→ I want to know if Mary needs any help. 我想知道 Mary是否需要我的帮助。

这句话中Dose没有了，但必须体现出来三单那也就是needs。

注：一下情况宾语从句的引导词用whether而不用if：

1）在具有旋转意义，即有or或or not时，尤其是直接于or not连用时，往往用whether不用if。

Let me know whether he will come or not. 你让我知道他是否会来。

Let me know whether or not he will come.

2）在介词之后用whether。

I’m interested in介词 whether he likes English. 我感兴趣的是他是否喜欢英语。

I worry about介词 whether I hurt her feelings.

3）在不定式前用whether。

He hasn’t decided whether to visit the old man. 他还没有决定是否去拜访那位老人。

I don’t know whether to go. 我不知道是否要走。

4）从句置于句首表示强调时，用whether，而不用if。 #:宾语从句一般来讲都是在动词的后面，也就是说宾语从句通常情况下不放在句子的开头。但是，有时候我们为了强调宾语从句的内容也会把它往前提，因为英文当中一句话越靠前的成分越重要，所以说，要强调宾语从句的内容，把它往前放了，这个时候也得用 whether 而不用 if 。因为用 if 的感觉有点像条件状语从句。

Whether this is true or not , I can’t say. 这是否是真的？我可说不好。

Whether it is a mistake , I don’t quite know. 这是否是一个错误，我并不完全知道。

5）若用 if 会引起歧义时，则用whether。 #：歧义是指可以按照不同方式理解。例如：

Please let me know if you like the book.

A. Please let me know whether you like the book. 让我知道，你是否喜欢这本书。

B. If you like the book , please let me know. 如果你喜欢这本书，请让我知道。

03. 特殊疑问词引导的宾语从句。

特殊疑问词充当宾语时，由原来的特殊疑问词引导，把疑问句语序改为陈述句语序。#：可以这么记，英文中的宾语从句统统都是陈述句语序，不会用到疑问句语序。

特殊疑问词不能省略。 #：英文当中总共有九个特殊疑问词，每个特殊疑问词都有自己的意思。

What are you talking about? 你们在谈论什么呢？
→ I want to know what you are talking about. 我想知道你们在谈论什么呢。

原来是 what 引导的特殊疑问句，放在宾语的位置，那就是由 what 引导的这样的宾语从句。
Where have you been? 你去哪了？
→ I want to know where you have been. 我想知道你去哪了。

原来就是 where 引导的特殊疑问句，现在仍然用 where 引导的宾语从句。一定要把 have 还原到主语 you 的后面。所以就是 where you have been.
When did Tom leave? Tom什么时候离开的？
→ I want to know when Tom left. 我想知道Tom什么时候离开的？

放在宾语的位置没有 did ，leave 要体现出来过去时的样子。那就是left , when Tom left。
How did you get here? 你怎么到这的？
→ I want to know how you got here. 我想知道你怎么到这的？

What does she like? 她喜欢什么？
→ I want to know what she likes. 我想知道她喜欢什么。
Who told you that? 谁告诉你的那件事？
→ I want to know who told you that?

这个宾语从句当中 who told you that 本来就是 who told you that 放在宾语的位置语序没有变，因为现在的 who 这个特殊疑问词它当的是主语，特殊疑问词当主语本来这个特殊疑问词就没有助动词提到主语的前面，所以它本来用的也就不是疑问词的语序。放在宾语从句中语序不变。

注：特殊疑问词做主语时放在宾语从句中语序不变。

Who took my pen? 谁拿了我的钢笔呀？

→ I want to know who took my pen. 我想知道谁拿了我的钢笔。
How many people are waiting? 有多少人在等？ #：how不能单独做主语但 How many people 一起做的主语。所以放在宾语的位置语序不变。

→ I want to know how many people are waiting. 我想知道有多少人在等。

04. 宾语从句的时态

宾语从句的时态应与主句时态呼应，具体包括以下三点：

1）如果主句的谓语动词是一般现在时，从句的谓语动词可根据需要，选用相应的任何时态。

I don’t know when he will come back. 我不知道他什么时候会回来。

He tells me that his sister came back yesterday. 他告诉我说他的妹妹昨天回来了。

2）如果主句的谓语动词是过去时，宾语从句的谓语动词只可根据需要，选用过去时态，即一般过去时、过去将来时或过去完成时等中的某一种形式。

The children didn’t know who he was. 孩子们不知道他是谁。 #：主句 didn’t know 一般过去时态，那么从句也只能用 who he was，不用 who he is。

He asked his father how it happened. 他问他的爸爸这事怎么发生的。 #：由于主句是 asked 那么这是一般过去时态，宾语 how it happened 也是一般过去时态。

3）如果宾语从句所表示的是客观事实、普遍真理、或自然现象等，不管主句用什么时态，从句时态都用一般现在时。

The teacher said that the earth goes around the sun. 老师说地球是围绕着太阳转的。

特别关注：宾语从句该用 what 还是 that 来引导？

宾语从句中 that 不做成分，what 需要在从句中作主语、宾语或者表语。因此，若从句不缺成分则用 that ，若从句缺主语，宾语或表语则用 what。

I know that you did your best. 我知道你尽了自己最大的努力。 #：因为 you did your best.不缺成分。 you主语 did宾语 your best 宾语。这时候用 that 引导。

I don’t believe what you said. #：you said 你说，从句部分缺宾语。缺宾语，用 what 来引导。

He told me that he came back yesterday. 他告诉我说他昨天回来了。

He told me what he saw during the journey. 他告诉了我他在旅行期间所看到的事。

二、名词性从句_主语从句&表语从句

01. 主语从句

主语从句即用一句话作主语，大多数主语从句都可以用 it 来代替，作形式主语，把主语从句后置，主语从句和宾语从句类似，都属于名词性从句。

若原来是陈述句，用that引导。that在句首时不可省略。
- That she will succeed is certain.
  
  It is certain that she will succeed.
若原来是一般疑问句，用 whether/if 引导（不可省略）。若从句置于句首只能用 whether。从句中用陈述语序。
- Whether she will come is not known.
  
  It is not known whether / if she will come.
若原来是特殊疑问句，用原来的特殊疑问词引导（不可省略）。从句中用陈述语序。
- How the prisoner escaped is a mystery.
  
  It is a mystery how the prisoner escaped.

注：当what引导的主语从句表示 “...的东西时”，一般不用it作形式主语。

What he needs is more experience. T

It is more experience what he needs. F
What I said is true. T

It is true what I said. F

注：以下情况主语从句不可位于句首；

if引导主语从句时不可位于句首。
- If he will come isn't known yet. F
  
  It isn't known yet if he will come. T
“It doesn't matter...” 结构中主语从句不可位于句首。
- Whether he likes it or not. F
  
  It doesn't matter whether he likes it or not. T
"It is said / reported..." 结构中主语从句不可位于句首。
- That three people were killed in the accident is reported. F
  
  It is reported that three people were killed in the accident. T
含有主语从句的复合句是疑问句时，主语从句不可位于句首。
- Is that it will snow this afternoon is likely? F
  
  Is it likely that is will snow this afternoon? T

02. 主语从句和宾语从句引导词的比较

宾语从句：由陈述句转化由 that 引导常省略，由一般疑问句转化由 whether/if 引导个别情况只用 whether，由特殊疑问句转化由特殊疑问词引导。

主语从句：由陈述句转化由 that 引导句首不可省略，由一般疑问句由 whether/if 引导句首不用 if，由特殊疑问句转化由特殊疑问词引导。

03. 表语从句

表语从句即一句话作表语，一般结构是“主语 + 系动词 + 表语从句”。常见的可以接表语的系动词由 be, look, remain, seem等，表语从句和宾语从句类似，都属于名词性从句。

The fact is (that) I can't finish the job in two days. that 可以省略。
The question is whether it is true or not.
This is not what I meant.
That is why Jack was criticized.
This is how Jane lives.
It seems that it's going to rain.
The question remains whether we can win the game.
The reason why he didn't come 定于从句 is that he was ill.

注：“The reason is that...”结构中that不可以用because，但是可以用"It(This/That) is because..."结构

The reason why I was angry is that he didn't keep his promise.
That is because he didn't keep hes promise.

04. 表语从句和宾语从句引导词的比较

宾语从句：由陈述句转化由 that 引导常省略，由一般疑问句转化由 whether/if 引导个别情况只用 whether，由特殊疑问句转化由特殊疑问词引导。

表语从句：由陈述句转化由 that 引导常省略，由一般疑问句转化由 whether 引导，由特殊疑问句转化由特殊疑问词引导。

三、名词性从句_同位语从句&定语从句区分

01. 同位语从句

如果一句话中两个句子成分所指内容相同，则后者称前者的同位语。

若同位语以句子形式出现则称为同位语从句，同位语从句用于对名词作进一步解释，说明名词的具体内容。同位语从句前面的那个名词也叫先行词，这点跟定语从句是类似的。

宾语从句、主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句统称名词性从句，他们的结构非常类似。

同位语从句和宾语从句引导词的比较

宾语从句：由陈述句转化而来由 that 作引导可省略，由一般疑问句转化而来由 whether/if 引导（个别情况只用 whether），由一般疑问句转化而来由特殊疑问词来引导。

同位语从句：由陈述句转化而来由 that 引导（正式文体不可省略），由一般疑问句转化而来由 whether 来引导，由特殊疑问句转化而来由特殊疑问词来引导。
同位语从句先行词多为fact, news, idea, thought, reply, answer, remark, plan, possibility, question, hope, doubt, mystery, information等。
- No one could account for the fact that one of the boxes was extremely heavy陈述句
- The question whether Tom will arrive on time同位语 is still unknown.
- The child's question why the sky is blue同位语从句 is hard to answer

注：同位语从句有时可以不紧跟在他所说明的名词后面，而是被别的词隔开，这样做往往是为了保持句子结构平衡。

An idea came to her that she could do the experiment in another way. idae的具体内容 她想到了一个主意，她可以用另外一种方法做这个实验。
如果放在idea的后面我们应该说成：An idea that she could do the experiment in another way came to her.这样谓语部分到末尾就很短。导致头重脚轻句子会非常不协调。
The news gave him a shock that his best friend committed suicide自杀的标准表达 in his five_bedroom house.

同位语从句与定语从句的区分

1）意义的不同。

同位语从句等同于先行词，用来说明先行词的具体内容，对先行词作补充说明；而定于从句用来修饰先行词，对先行词加以限定，描述它的性质或特征。

定于从句我们翻译的时候一般会翻译成什么什么的东西，直观上同位语从句就可以翻译成什么什么这个东西。

2）先行词的不同。

定于从句的先行词是名称或者代词；而同位语从句的先行词只能是名词，而且仅限于fact，news，idea，though，reply，answer，remark，plan，possibility，，question，hope，doubt，mystery，information等少数词。

3）引导词功能的不同。
1. 引导定语从句的that除了起连接作用，还在定语从句中充当一定成分，并且在意义上代表先行词，在从句中作宾语且之前无介词时可以省略。引导同位语从句的that只起连接作用，在从句中不住任何成分，通常不能省略。#：定语从句中的that起连接作用，因为从句的引导出要起一个连接作用的。定语从句中的that要做成分，同位语中的that不可以作成分。
2. when、where、why引导的定语从句的先行词一定分别的表示时间、地点和原因的名词，而三者引导的同位语从句的先行词则肯定不是表示时间、地点和原因的名词。
  
  引导定语从句时，它们在从句中充当状语，可以转换成”介词+关系代词“的形式；引导同位语从句时，它们在从句中仍然充当状语，但不能转换成”介词+关系代词“的形式。
3. The reply that he gave me定语从句 hurt my feelings.
  The reply that he couldn't help me同位语从句 hurt my feelings.
The news that you told me yesterday定语从句 was really exciting.

We heard the news that our team had won.同位语从句

四、直接引语与间接引语_句式的转换

陈述句，祈使句，一般疑问句和特殊疑问句由直接引语变间接引语。

01. 直接引语与间接引语概述

直接引语间接引语都是宾语。

直接引语即一字不差地引用别人的话，需放在引号（单引号）内；间接引语则是用自己的话转述别人的话，不用引导，而以宾语从句的形式出现。

02. 直接引语如何变成间接引语

直接引语是陈述句时

直接引语如果是陈述句，变为间接引语时，用连词 that 引导（that 在口语中常省去），that从句之前用say、tell 等动词，从句中的人称、时态、指示代词、时间状语、地点状语等要作相应的变化。
- Sally says：”I'm sitting under the tree." → Sally says that she is sitting under the tree.
- Sara says："I broke that plate." → Sara says that she broke that plate.
- She said: "I'm hungry." → She said that she was hungry.
- "'I am having breakfast,'he told me." → He told me that he was having breakfast.
直接引语是疑问句时

直接引语如为疑问句，改间接引语时，须将疑问句的语序改为陈述句的语序。

1）直接引语是一般疑问句时

直接引语若是一般疑问句，变为间接引语时，须用连接词 whether 或者 if 将其引出，使其成为间接引语的宾语从句。如果主句中的谓语动词为 said，则将其改为 asked。如果谓语动词后面没有间接宾语，可以加上一个间接宾语me, him, her, them, us等。
- She said: "Is your father an engineer？" → She asked me whether my father was an engineer.
- The teacher said to Li Ming: "Have you finished your homework?" → The teacher asked Li Ming whether he had finished his homework.
- The boss asked him: "Has the work been finished?" → The boss asked him if the work had been finished.
2）直接引语是特殊疑问句时

如果直接引语为特殊疑问句，改为间接引语时，仍用特殊疑问句中的特殊疑问词作为连接词将其引出，构成间接引语中的宾语从句，但需将疑问句语序改为陈述句语序。如果主句中的谓语动词为 said，则将其改为 asked。
- "What do you do every Sunday morning?" my friend said to me. → My friend asked me what I did every Sunday morning. #:直接引语，放在前面还是后面都可以，但是转化成间接引语时候，我们通常都放在后面。
- “Where have you been, Lily?” her mom asked. → Her mom asked Lily where she had been.
- I asked her: "How many English words have you learned?" → I asked her how many English words she had learned.
- ‘When did you get home?' asked my father. → My father asked me when I had got home. #:在直接引语中谓语放在主语前，放在主语后都行，但是转化成间接引语的时候，只能主语在前，谓语在后。
直接引语是祈使句时

转述祈使句时，要使祈使句的动词原形变为带 to 的不定式，并在不定式的前面根据句子的意思加上tell, ask, order等动词；如果祈使句为否定式，在不定式的前面加 not。如果祈使句中有 please 一词，改为间接引语时，将 please 去掉。
- He said: 'Sit down, please.' → He asked me to sit down.
- The teacher said: 'Don't talk in class!' → The teacher told us not to talk in class.
- The captain said to his men: 'Fire!' → The captain ordered his men to fire.

五、直接引语与间接引语_转换注意事项

01. 人称的变化

直接引语变间接引语时，人称的变化遵循 “一主二宾三不变” 的原则

“一主”，即直接引语中的第一人称，转化为与主语相一致的人称。

He said: 'I am very sorry.' → He said that he was very sorry.

He said:'I like it very much' → He said that he liked it very much.
“二宾”，即把直接引语中的第二人称变为和主句的间接宾语（即听话人，如无听话人，可根据上下文的体会人为确定一个人称）相一致的人称。

'You should be more careful next time,' my father told me. → My father told me that I should be more careful the next time.
“三不变”，即直接引语中的第三人称变为间接引语时，人称不变。

She said to her son:'I'll check your homework tonight. → She said to her son that she would check his homework that night.

注：人称的转换包括人称代词、物主代词和名词性物主代词等。
- He told me:'I'll go to the station to meet a friend of mine this afternoon.' → He told me that he would go to the station to meet a friend of his that afternoon.

02. 时态的变化

若当即转述别人的话，主句的谓语动词（如say，tell等）用一般现在时，则直接引语中的时态不用作任何改变放在间接引语中。
- He says:'I am busy.' → He says that he is busy.
- Mr. Jones says: 'I have just finished my work.' → Mr. Jones says that he has just finished his work.
- Jack says: 'I'll go to England tomorrow.' → Jack says that he will go to England tomorrow.

若过了一段时间再转述别人的话，主句的谓语动词用一般过去时态（said，told等），则直接引语的时态需要作变化。

直接引语	间接引语
一般现在时	一般过去时
一般过去时	过去完成时
现在进行时	过去进行时
一般将来时	过去将来时
现在完成时	过去完成时
情态动词	对应的过去式

He said: 'I want to see you.' → He said that he wanted to see me.
She said : 'I've just made a new film' → She said that she had just made a new film.
She said : 'I am going to retire.' → She said that she was going to retire.
Tom said : 'I broke the cup.' → Tom said that he had broken the cup. #:过去的过去，过去完成时态。

注：直接引语如果是客观真理、名人名言时，变为间接引语时，时态不变。

The teacher said:'The earth is round.' → The teacher said that the earth is round.

03. 直接引语变为间接引语时时间状语、地点状语、指示代词及动词的变化。

时间状语：

直接引语	变间接引语
now	then
today	that day
tonight	that night
tomorrow	the next day
yesterday	the before
this week (month···)	that week (month···)
last week (month···)	the week (month···) before
next week (month···)	the next week (month···)
two weeks (month···) ago	two weeks (month···) before

地点状语：直接引用：here；变间接引用：there
指示代词：直接引语：this/these；变间接引语：that/those
动词：直接引语：come, bring；变间接引语：go, take

Lily said : 'I will come back next month.' → Lily said that she would go back the next month.
He said : 'It is nine o'clock now.' → He said that it was nine o'clock then.
He said : 'I haven't seen her today.' → He said that he hadn't seen her that day.
She said : 'I went there yesterday.' → She said that she had gone there the day before.

注：以上这些变化，要根据说话的具体时间和具体地点视情况而定。如果就在当地转述，here就不必改为there，come也不必改为go；如果就在当天转述，yesterday或tomorrow等时间状语从句也不必改变。

六、定语从句_关系代词&关系副词

01. 定义

定语从句即一句话作定语，多用来修饰句中的名词或代词，一般位于被修饰成分之后，被修饰的成分成为 “先行词” 。

Why 为什么称为先行词呢？因为定语从句是放在所修饰的，那个成分的后面的，那么所修饰的成分是不是就在前，它在前就先行一步，所以我们管它叫先行词

02. 关系词

分为关系代词（who, whom, whose, that, which）和关系副词（when, where, why）。引导词指代先行词，并一定在定语从句中一先行词的身份充当某个成分（主语、宾语、定语、表语或状语）。

关系代词：

who 先行词是人，在句中作主语或宾语。

whom 先行词是人，在句中作宾语。

which 先行词是物，在从句中作主语或宾语。

that 先行词是人或物，在句中作主语或宾语。

whose 先行词是人或物，在从句中作定语。

Tips:
- that/who之前不能要介词，若有介词需用which/whom。
- 关系代词或关系副词在定语从句中已充当一定成分，因此从句中不能出现与它重复的成分。

She is the girl. The girl lives next door. → She is the girl who lives next door.
She is the girl. The girl's legs are broken. → She is the girl whose legs are broken.
The house belongs to him. The house's windows face to the north. → The house whose windows face to the north belongs to him.
This is the book. I want to read the book. → This is the book which I want to read.
That was a mistake. The mistake couldn't be forgiven. → That was a mistake which couldn't be forgiven.

关系副词：

when 先行词需要表示时间的名词，在从句中作时间状语。

where 先行词需要是表示地点的名词，在从句中作地点状语。

why 先行词只能是 reason，在从句中作原因状语。

I will never forget the day, I came to Beijing on that day. → I will never forget the day when I came to Beijing.
The police searched the house. He lived in the house. → The police searched the house where he lived.
I don't know the reason. He is angry for that reason. → I don't know the reason why He is angry.

注1：这三个关系副词在意义上都相当于”一定的介词 + which “结构。

when = on (in, at, during...) + which
- I will never forget the day when (on which) I came to Beijing.
where = in(at, on...) + which
- The police searched the house where (in which) he lived.
why = for which
- I don't know the reason why (for which) He is angry.

注2：当先行词是表示时间的time，day等和表示地点的place，house等以及表示原因的reason时，一定要注意分析从句的结构；如果从句缺少主语或宾语，关系词应该用which或that；如果缺少时间状语或地点状语或原因状语，才能用when、where或why。

I'll never forget the day when we first met.
I'll never forget the day which/that we spent together.
This is the school which/that I visited.
This is the school where I studied.
The reason which/that you gave me is unacceptable.

七、定语从句_关系词的特殊用法

01. 定语从句关系词的省略问题

限定性定语从句：关系代词作宾语（不能位于介词之后）或表语时可以省略，关系副词 when，why可以省略。
- This is the book （which） I want to read. #：在从句中which 作动词read的宾语。
- I don't know the man (who/whom) you are talking about.
- I don’t know the man about whom you are taking. #: whom 不可以省掉因为前面有介词。
- This is the movie (that) I want to see.
非限定性定语从句：关系代词和关系副词都不可省略。
- She is the girl who lives next door.
- She is the girl whose legs are broken.
- The house whose windows face to the north belongs to him.
- That was a mistake which couldn't be forgiven.

注：定语从句关系代词作主语后又有be动词时常可以把关系代词和be一起省略。

The man (who is) standing behind the counter served me. #: 不省就是定语从句省掉就是现在分词。
Give me the book (which is) on the desk. #: 省掉就变成介词短语作定语。

02. 定语从句关系词只用 that 的场合

在限定性定语从句中，下列情况下关系词只能用 that 不用 which 或 who(m)。

先行词有形容词最高级修饰时。
- Newton was one of the greatest men that ever lived.
- This novel is the best one that I have ever read.
先行词有序数词修饰时。
- This is the first movie that I have ever seen.
先行词有 the only, the very修饰时。
- The only thing that he is interested in is eating.
- He is the only person that can do this job well.
- This is the very book that I am looking for.
当先行词为 all, something, anything,everything,nothing等不定代词时。
- All that can be done has been done.
- I need to eat something that isn't so sweet.
当先行词被 all, any, no, much, little, few, every 等限定词所修饰时。
- I heard clearly every word that he said.
当主句是以 which 或 who 开头的特殊疑问句时。
- Which is the bike that you lost?
- Who is the boy that won the gold medal?
当先行词即含表人的名词又含表物的名词时。
- The man in charge complained that the boss didn't send the men and money先行词 that he needed.
- She described in her compositions the people an places that impressed her most.
当先行词在主句中作表语，而关系代词在从句中也作表语时。
- Shanghai is no longer the city表语、先行词 that it used to be.

03. 定语从句中关系词不可以用 that 的场合

非限定性定语从句不可以用 that 来引导。
- More and more people are beginning to learn English, which is becoming very popular in our country. #: which引导的这个定语从句前面有逗号引导，那你就不要用that了。
介词后面不可以用 that。
- Is this the room in which Mr. White lives?
- 注：在一些固定搭配的动词短语中，由于动词和介词不可分割，因此不能把介词置于关系代词之前。
  - This is the pen (that/which) I am looking for. T
  - This is the pen for which I am looking. F
当关系代词后面带有插入语时不可以用 that。
- Here's the book which, as I have told you插入语, will help improve your English.
先行词本身就是 that 时关系代词只用 which。
- What's that which flashed in the shy just now?
当定语从句的先行词是整个主句时，关系代词用 which 不可以用 that。
- He went to work without breakfast, which was quite unusual.

八、定语从句_限定性与非限定性定语从句

01. 定义

限定性定语从句与先行词有不可分割的关系，若去掉则先行词指代不明，整个句子不知所云；

非限定性定语从句仅对意义已很明确的先行词作补充说明，若去掉对整个句子意义没有明显影响，多用逗号与主句分开。

Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year.

My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.

This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching.

02. 限定性定语从句与非限定性定语从句的区分：

从意义上看，限定性定语从句起限定作用，不可省略，否则原句句意不完整；非限定性定语从句仅作补充或说明，若省略掉原句句意仍然完整。
从结构上看，限定性定语从句紧跟先行词，同先行词之间一般不加逗号；非限定性定语从句用逗号与主句隔开。
从功能上看，限定性定语从句修饰先行词；非限定性定语从句可以修饰先行词或整个主句。
从引导词上看，非限定性定语从句不可以由 that 来引导。
从翻译角度来看，限定性定语从句一般译为定语从句；非限定性定语从句一般译为并列分句。

He has two sisters who are working in the city.他有两个在这个城市里工作的妹妹。

He has two sisters, who are working in the city.他有两个妹妹，她们在这个城市里工作。
The children who wanted to play football were disappointed because it rained.想踢足球的那部分孩子很失望。

The children，who wanted to play football, were disappointed because it rained.这些孩子很失望，因为下雨了。
He will wear no clothes先行词 that will make him look different.他不会穿那些让他看起来与众不同的衣服。

He will wear no clothes, which will make him look different.他不会穿任何衣服，这会让他看起来不一样。

03. which 和 as 引导的特殊的定语从句：

which / as引导的非限定性定语从句可以修饰整个主句。

as多含有 ”正如“ 的意思，位于主句前后均可。which 含义没有限制，只能用于主句后，多数情况下意思同 and this相似。

I said nothing, which made him more angry.
He was a policeman in disguise which surprised me a lot.
One of my high school classmates died a year ago, which I can't believe.

常见的as引导的结构（多位于句首）
- as is well known 众所周知
- as may be imagined 可以想象得出
- as has been said before 如前所述
- as has been pointed out 正如已经指出的
- as is expected/anticipated 正如预料到的

注1: as后若为"is/was + 过去分词"构成的被动语态，is或was 可以省去；which后的is或was在同样的情况下则不可省。

She is absent again, as (is) expected.
As (is) reported, a foreign delegation will visit our town.

注2: as 也可以引导限定性的定语从句，多和the same 或such连用，构成“the same ... as”和“such ... as” 结构，先行词是表示人或物的名词。

This is the same book as I read last week.
She told me the same story as she had told you.

九、定语从句_介词+关系代词&定语从句与先行词的割裂

01. “ 介词 + 关系代词 ” 的定语从句

关系代词的选择，在介词后作宾语的关系代词一般只有哦 which 和 whom。如先行词是物，引导词用which；如先行词是人，则引导词用 whom。
- The man to whom you spoke is a teacher.
- The city in which she lives is far away. #:原来可以说The city which she lives in is far away.
介词的选择

“ 介词 + 关系代词 “ 中的介词主要通过以下三种方法确定：

1）根据定语从句中的谓语动词或形容词来选用介词。
- This is the book for which you asked. #: 原句：This is the book which you asked for.经常会把for往前提。
- This is the iPad on Which I spent 3000 yuan. #: spend on。
- The West Lake, for which Hangzhou is famous, is a beautiful place. #: buy sth. for sb.
2）根据先行词来确定介词。
- In his room, we saw a big bookcase in which there were all kinds of books. #: 在bookcase里面。
- I won't forget the day on which he got married.
- The plane in which we flew to Canada is very comfortable.
3）根据定语从句所表达的意义来确定介词。
- Air, without which man can't live, is rally important.
- These are my glasses, without which I can't see clearly.
- This is the book from which I got the story.
介词的位置

介词一般放在关系代词 which 和 whom 之前，但也可放在原来的位置上。
- The house in which we live is not large. #: 放在前面比较有用的多。
  
  = The house which we live in is not large.
- This is the man from whom I earned the news. = This is the man whom I learned the news from.
注1：介词和谓语动词是固定词组时，介词一般不前置。

This is the book (which/that) I am looking for. T

This is the book for which I am looking. F

常见的这样的搭配有：look for, look after, take care of, pay attention to等。

注2：“介词 + 关系代词” 前可有some、any、both、all、neither、none、many、much、most、each、a few 、a litter、few、one等代词或者数词。
- Last week, four people came to look at the house, each of whom wanted to buy it.
- He loved his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him.
” 介词 + 关系词 “ 结构同关系副词的互换

在从句中充当时间，地点或原因状语的 ” 介词 + 关系词 “ 结构往往可以同关系副词 when， where 和 why 互换。
- Do you remember the day on which you joined our club? = Do you remember the day when you joined our club?
- This is the house in which地点状语 I lived two years ago. = This is the house where I lived two years age.

02. 定语从句与先行词的割裂

如果做主语的先行词跟有一个较长的定语从句和一个较短的谓语，为平衡句子结构，常把谓语动词放在先行词和定语从句之间。
- A new teacher will come tomorrow who will teach you English.
- The day is not fat off when I'll move to Australia.
- A man can conquer the world who can conquer himself. #: 本来说成：A man who can conquer himself can conquer the world.
如果作宾语的先行词跟有一个较长的定语从句和一个较短的宾语补足句（或定语、状语），为平衡句子结构，常把宾语补足句（或定语、状语）放在先行词和定语从句之间。
- He asked the girl to stay at home who had been ill for along time.
- Do you remember on afternoon ten years ago when I came to your house and borrowed a diamond necklace? #：英语上，我们习惯把短的放前长的放后。

十、状语从句

01. 时间状语从句

when, while, as和whenever，前三者都有” 当···的时候 “之意。when 既可以和短暂性动词连用，也可以和连续性动词连用；while和as往往和连续性动词连用；while 和 as 往往和连续性动词连用；whenever意味 ”无论何时，每次“。
- He entered the room when (while/as) the meeting was going on.
- When she comes, I'll tell her to wait for you.
- Whenever I hear that tune, it makes me think of you.
注：1. while可以作并列连词，引导并列分句，表示对比，可译为“而...”。

I am fond of English while he likes maths.

注：2. while还可以表示“尽管”，相当于although。

While I admit that the problem is difficult, I don't think that it can't be solved.
before 和 after，before 和 after 表示的是两个时间或两个事件之间的先后关系。before 意为 ” 在···之前 “，after 意为 ” 在···之后 “。
- They had got everything ready before I arrived.
- After the game had started, he left.
as soon as，as soon as 意为” 一 ··· 就 ··· “，若表达过去的事，通常主句和从句都用一般过去时态；若表达将来的事，往往主句用一般将来时态，从句用一般现在时态。
- He told me the news as soon as he got the message.
- As soon as the bell rang, the students went out of the classroom. #:状语从句没有特殊的要求，往往放在主句前主句后都行。
- I'll call you as soon as I finish dinner. #: 主将从现。
till 和 until，这两个词意思都是” 直到··· “，用法相近，但在句首只能用until。在肯定句中，主句要用延续性动词；在否定句中，主句往往用短暂性动词。
- He didn't leave until I came back.
- You'd better wait until the rain stops.
- Until they finished the work, they didn't go home.

02. 地点状语从句

地点状语从句常用 where 和 wherever 来引导，可以放在主句前，也可以放在主句后。where指” 在某个地方 “，wherever指 ” 在任何一个地方 “。

You should put the book where it was.
You can sit wherever you like.

03. 条件状语从句

最常见的状语从句有 if 引导，结构为：

if 从句：现代时态（一般现在，现在进行，现在完成）；

主句：一般将来时或情态动词或祈使句；

口诀：主将从现主情从现主祈从现
- If you leave now, you will regret it.
- If he is sleeping, don't wake him up.
- If you've finished the housework, you can see the movie.
unless可以引导条件状语从句，表示反面的条件，意为“除非，如果不”；

而 if 表示正面的条件，意为“如果”。unless = if···not
- I can't help you unless you tell me what happened. 等价于 I can't help you if you don't tell me what happened.

04. 原因状语从句

because，science as和for

Because语气最强，可位于主句前或主句后；

I didn't go to see him because it was raining hard.
since意为“既然”引导的从句常在句首；

Since you say so, I suppose it's true.
as所表示的理由较弱，as从句常放在主句前；

As I didn't see her, she probably didn't attend the meeting.
for语气最弱，位于主句后，且之前有逗号与主句隔开。

There must be no one in the house, for the door is closed.

05. 结果状语从句

So和so that都可以引导结果状语从句，放在主句后。需注意的是，so that引导结果状语从句时，从句中不可有情态动词，否则表示目的，翻译为“为了，以便于···”。

He passed the exam, so he was very happy.
I have many things to do, so that I am busy all day long.
She left early, so that she caught the train.

06. 让步状语从句

让步状语从句常由thought和although来引导，译为“虽然，尽管”。though比although通俗，但不如although正式。可位于主句前或主句后。

Though I didn't know many people at the party, I had a very good time.

07. 方式状语从句

最常见的方式状语从句的引导词为as, 表示"如··· , 像···“。

Please do it as I told you.
They watched her closely as a cat watches a rat.

08. 状语从句其他连接词

once conj. 一旦。；
- Once you get there. you'll love it.
now that 既然，由于；
- Now that dinner is ready, let's eat first.
even though 尽管；
- Even though you have no interest in art, the museum is worth visiting.尽管你对艺术没有兴趣，这个博物馆也值得参观。（即成事实，我知道你对艺术没有兴趣。）
even if 即使。
- Even if you have no interest in art, the museum is worth visiting.即使你对艺术没有兴趣，这个博物馆也值得参观。（假设将来的事，我不知道你对艺术是否感兴趣。）

十一、被动语态_使用场合&结构

01. 被动语态的概念。

语态是动词的一种形式。用以表示主语和谓语之间的关系。语态分为两种。主动语态和被动语态。主动语态表示主语是谓语动词的执行者。被动语态表示主语是谓语动词的承受者。

02. 被动语态的使用场合。

不知道动作的执行者或不必要说出动作的执行者。
- My bike was stolen last night.
- The temple is being repaired.
- —— The window is dirty.
  
  —— I know. It hasn't been cleaned for weeks.
强调动作的承受者。
- All the employees except the manager are encouraged to work on line at home.
- Bruce was hit by a car. 比较：A car hit Bruce.
为了更好地安排句子。
- The famous actor got on the train and was immediately recognized by people.
在文章标题、广告、新闻中。
- Girls wanted.
- Fifteen-year-old Kidnapped!

03. 被动语态的结构。

理论上每一种时态都有主动语态和被动语态两种结构；

被动语态，谓语动词结构：be + 动词的过去分词；

动词过去分词只表达一个被动含义，不同时态体现在be形式不同。

一般现在时态：am/is/are + 动词的过去分词。
- Paper is made from wood.
- Our classroom is cleaned every day. #: 用语态时候，一定和时态是不可分割的。某种时态的被动语态。
- These books are written for children.
一般过去时态：was/were/ + 动词的过去分词。
- His room was cleaned just now.
- The building was built in 1928.
- Our team was beaten last night.
现在进行时态：am/is/are + being + 动词的过去分词。
- A new factory is being built near our town.
- Some trees are being cut down in the park.
- The bridge is being repaired.
过去进行时态：was/were + being + 动词的过去分词。
- A new factory was being built near our town at that time.
- Some trees were being cut down when I was passing by yesterday.
一般将来时的被动语态。
1）will/shall + be + 动词的过去分词。

The thief will be caught soon.

2）am/is/are + going to be + 动词的过去分词。

You watch is going to be mended in an hour.

过去将来时态。
1）would/should +be + 动词的过去分词。
- The police said that the thief would be caught soon.
2）was/were + going to be+动词的过去分词。
- The man told me that my watch was going to be mended in an hour.
现在完成时态： Have / has + been + 动词的过去分词
- My car has been repaired.
- His phone has just been stolen.
过去完成时态：had + been + 动词的过去分词。
- The dog had been driven away before the child's parents arrived. #: 用语态一定看好是哪种时态的被动语态。然后你再确定谓语动词我们用什么样的形式。
- The cake had been eaten before the party began. #: ”晚会开始“是过去，”蛋糕被吃掉“是过去的过去。
将来完成时态：will / shall have been + 动词的过去分词。
- By the time you get back, the problem will have been solved.
过去将来完成时态：would/ should have been + 动词的过去分词。
- He said the work would have been finished the next day.
情态动词的被动语态：情态动词 + be + 动词的过去分词。
- The missing boy couldn't be found anywhere.
- These children must be taken good care of.

04. 被动语态使用时的注意事项。

不及物动词或不及物动词词组不能用于被动语态，如 happen, die, disappear, take place 等。
系动词不能用于被动语态，如 be , look, sound, appear 等。
表示状态的动词不能用于被动语态，如 have, fit, suit, cost, suffer 等。
带有同源宾语、反身代词的及物动词不能用于被动语态，如 dream a dream, live a···life, enjoy one self 等。 #：同源宾语就是这个宾语跟动词要么是同样的词，要么是同根词。
不及物动词构成的及物性短语动词可以用于被动语态，如 look, after, look into 等。
- Your house will be looked after while you are away.
- The question was looked into.

十二、被动语态_主动与被动的转换

01. 主动语态变被动语态的方法。

把主动语态的宾语变为被动语态的主语。
把谓语变成被动结构（be + 过去分词。）
把主动语态中的主语放在介词by之后，将主格改为宾格。

总结：宾语变主语，谓语动词变被动，主语放在by 的后面。

02. 遇到下列情况时，表示动作执行者的“by+宾语”常常被省略。

动作执行者不确定时。
- Many people are killed in traffic accidents every day.
不必表明动作的执行者时。
- Football is played all over the world.
动作执行者为一般大众时。
- Both English and Spanish are spoken in this area.

03. 主动语态变被动语态需要注意的几个问题。

时态保持一致。
- I have repaired my computer. → My computer has been repaired.
谓动为动词短语的被动语态不能丢掉动词短语的介词或副词。
- His best friend often looks after him. → He is often looked after by his best friend.
主动语态中若有双宾语。紧跟在动词之后的宾语变为被动语态的主语。另一个宾语不变。
- I bought my son a toy car for his birthday. → My son was bought a toy car for his birthday.
- I bought a toy car for may son for his birthday. → A toy car was bought for my son for his birthday.
主动语态若有复合宾语，将主动语态的宾语变为被动语态的主语，其余不变。
- They elected John president of the students' union. → John was elected president of the students' union.

注：使役动词（make，have，let）和感官动词（see，watch，notice，hear，find）后跟省略了to的动词不定式，但在被动语态中必须加上to。

We noticed a stranger enter the building. → A stranger was noticed to enter the building.
They found him steal a necklace from a shop. → He was found to steal a necklace from a shop.
The boss made him work very late every day. → He was made to work very late every day.

十三、被动语态_特殊动词的被动语态

01. 双宾语动词的被动语态。

含有双宾语的动词变为被动语态时，紧跟在动词之后的宾语变为被动语态的主语，另一个宾语不变；如果主动语态中宾语之前有介词，变为被动语态时介词仍然保留。

以动词give为例：
Give sb. sth. → Sb. be given sth.
give sth. to sb. → Sth. be given sb.

They have offered me a large sum of money. → I have been offered a large sum of money.
They have offered a large sum of money to me. → a large sum of money has been offered to me.
He sent me a present. → I was sent a present.
He sent me a present to me. → A present was sent to me,
He handed me the prize. → I was handed the prize.
He handed me the prize to me. → The prize was handed to me.

02. 主动形式表示被动意义的词。

英文当中有一些词，用主动形式表示被动意义。也就是它用主动形式，但其实表达的是被动的含义。换过来说，对于特定的这些词，我们表达它的被动含义的时候是不用被动语态而要用主动语态的。

我先感官动词和系动词加形容词，可以表示被动意义，如look，smell，taste，fell，sound，prove等。 #: 系动词压根它就没有被动语态。因为它没有宾语嘛！
- The flower smells sweet.
- You look tired.
- The dish tastes delicious.
- The cloth feels soft.
- The idea sounds great.
- The movie proved to be a success.
要是开始，结束，运动等的动词往往用主动形式表示被动意义。如begin, start, end, open, close, shut, catch, move 等。
- Work began at 7 o'clock this morning.
- The shop closes at 6 p.m. every day.
- The play ended at 10 o'clock.
- The door opens with difficulty.
- The box doesn't lock. 这个箱子锁不上。
- The box isn't locked. 这个箱子没有上锁。
某些表示主语的属性特征的动词可以表示被动意义。如read, write, eat, sell, wash, clean, dry, peel 等。
- The essay reads smoothly.
- My new pen writes well.
- The meat eat well.
- This type of television sells well.
want, need, require, worth 等词的后面可用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义。
- The table wants cleaning.
- The children need taking care of.
- My bike requires mending.
某些作表语的形容词后，用不定式的主动形式表示被动意义。
- She is easy to get along with.
- The fish is not fit to eat.
- He is hard to please.
有些“介词+名词”构成的介词短语表示被动意义。

under control 得到控制。 under treatment 治疗。 under repair 在修理。 under discussion 在讨论。 under construction 在施工。 beyond belief 难以置信。 in sight 看得见。 out of sight 看不见。 on show 在展出。

The rumor is beyond belief. = The rumor can't be believed.
My car is under repair. = My car is under repair.

十四、虚拟语气_if型的虚拟语气

01. if 引导的条件状语从句

真实条件句。
非真实条件句。（即虚拟语气。）
1）与现在事实相反。

从句谓语主句谓语

did（be只用were） would / could / should / might + do
- If it were not for hope, the heart would break. 人为希望而活。
- If there were no clouds, we should not enjoy the sun. 吃得苦中苦，方知甜中甜。
- If I were a bird, I could fly to you.
2）与过去事实相反。

从句谓语主句谓语

had done would / could / should / might + have done
- If I had known your telephone number, I would have called you yesterday.
- If he had listened to his teacher's advice, he could have passed the exam.
- If he had been more careful, he would not have made the mistake.
3）与未来趋势相反

从句谓语主句谓语

1）did（be用were） would / could / should / might + do

2) should + do might + to

3) were to + do 从上到下这三种可能性越来越小。
- If we missed the train tomorrow, we should wait an hour at the station.
- If it should rain tomorrow, I would not go there.
- If the sun were to rise in the west, I would lend you the money.

从句谓语	主句谓语
did（be只用were）	would / could / should / might + do

从句谓语	主句谓语
had done	would / could / should / might + have done

从句谓语	主句谓语
1）did（be用were）	would / could / should / might + do
2) should + do	might + to
3) were to + do	从上到下这三种可能性越来越小。

注1：非真实条件句中的条件从句有时不表达出来，只含在副词、介词短语、上下文或其他方式表示出来，这种句子叫做含蓄条件句，在多数情况下，条件会暗含咋短语中，如without...，but for...等

But for his help, we would still be working now.
Without your instruction, I would not have made such great progress.
We didn't know his telephone number; otherwise we would have telephoned him.

注2：有时主句和从句的谓语动词指不同的时间，这时需要用混合虚拟语气。在这种情况下，主句和从句应采用语具体时间相对应的虚拟形式，在做这些题目时候尤其要注意每道题目的提示语：时间状语。

If you had followed my advice, you would be better now.
If you had studied hard before, you would be a college student now.
If I were you, I would have chosen to take the job.

If引导的虚拟语气的从句部分含有were，should或had时，可省略if，再把were，should或had移到从句的句首，实行倒装。这种多用于书面语。

If they were here now, they could help us. → Were they here now, they could help us.
If you had come a little earlier, you would have met him. → Had you come a little earlier, you would have met him.
If it should rain, the crops would be saved. → Should it rain, the crops would be saved.

十五、虚拟语气_其它形式的虚拟语气

01. wish 型的虚拟语气

wish 后的宾语从句用虚拟语气，表示不能实现的愿望。与现在事实相反，从句中的谓语动词用一般过去时（be的过去式只用were）；与过去事实相反，从句中的谓语动词用“had加过去分词”；表示将来不太可能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“would / could / should / might + 动词原形”。

I wish you were here.

I wish I had taken your advice.
Sophia wished she hadn't done it.

I wish you could go with me tomorrow.

02. should 型的虚拟语气 (should + 动词原形)

在表示"建议“、”要求“、”命令“等的动词。比如suggest, advise, require, request, insist, order 等后的宾语从句中，谓语动词用“（should）+动词原形” 结构。
- She suggested we (should) leave here at once.
- They requested that he (should) sing a song.
- He insisted that I (should) stay to dinner.
表示"建议“、”要求“、”命令“等的名词是suggestion, advice, request, order 等的表语从句和同位语从句中，谓语动词用“（should）+ 动词原形 ” 结构。
- He made a suggestion that we (should) have a fancy dress party.
- His advice that we (should) go on a trip together is wonderful.
- His suggestion was that we (should) have a fancy dress party.
在形容词important, necessary, natural, strange, surprising等后的主语从句中用“（should）+动词原形”结构。
- It was important that you (should) tell me all the information.
- It's strange that you (should) say such a thing.

03. as if/though 引导的虚拟语气

在 as if/though引导的状语从句中，若从句与事实相反，则要用虚拟语气。结构如下：

主句 + as if / though + 主句 + 一般过去时（从句的动作与主句同时发生）
主句 + as if / though + 主语 + would /could + 动词原形（从句的动作相对于主句来说，在将来发生）
主句 + as if / though + 主语 + 过去完成时（从句的动作先发生于主句动作之前）

He talks as if he knew all about it.
She speaks English well as if she had lived in America.
He learns English so hard as if he would study abroad.

注：这种结构若从句中的情况是可能发生的，也可以用陈述语气。

It looks as if our team is going to win.
It seems as if we will have to spend the night here.
The meat tastes as if it has gone bad.

04. If only 引导的虚拟语气

If only后用的虚拟语气，常译为“ 要是 ··· 就好了 ”。表示现在没有实现的愿望，谓语动词用一般过去时；
表示过去没有实现的愿望，谓语动词用过去完成时；表示将来不太可能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“would / could / should / might + 动词原形”。

If only I were twenty again.
If only I could speak several foreign languages.
If only I had known where to find you.

05. It is (high / about) time (that) ··· 结构的虚拟语气

在 “It is (high / about) time (that) ··· ” 结构中，从句的谓语动词用一般过去时（be的过去式用were），表示“早该干某事而已经有些晚了”。

It is time that you went to bed.
It is about time that you washed your clothes.
It is high time that somebody taught you to behave yourself,

注：这种结构可以用“It is time for sb. to do sth.” 来代替。

It is time for you to go to bed.
It is about time for you to wash your clothes.
It is high time for somebody to teach you to behave yourself.

06. would rather引导的虚拟语气

would rather意为“宁愿···”，之后接从句时从句应用虚拟语气；用一般过去时表示现在或将来的愿望，用过去完成时表示过去的愿望。

I'd rather you paid the money now.
I'd rather you painted the room pink next time.
I'd rather I hadn't done that.

注：would rather 后也可以用动词原形，表示现在或将来的一种主观愿望或选择。

I'd rather do it today.
He would rather die than surrender.
I'd rather not go dancing tonight.

十六、情态动词_常见用法

01. 情态动词特点

情态动词是具有实际意义的助动词。
情态动词不能单独作谓语，需和动词原形一起作谓语。
情态动词没有人称的变化。
含有情态动词的句子，疑问句和否定句在情态动词上发生变化。

02. 常见的情态动词有：

can (could), may (might), must, have to, will (would), shell （should), ought to, had better, dare (dared), need (needed)等。

can与could

1）表示能力，此时可用be able to 代替。can只有一般现在时和一般过去式；而be able to 则有更多的时态。
- Can you lift this heavy box?
- Mary can speak three languages.
- I'll not be able to come this afternoon.
2）表示请求和允许，此时可与may互换。在疑问句中还可用could，might代替，不是过去式，只有语气更委婉，不能用于肯定句和答语中。
- --- Can I go now? ---Yes, you can. --- No，you can't.
- --- Could I come to see you tomorrow?
3）表示推测（惊讶、怀疑、不相信的态度），多用于疑问句和否定句中。
- Can this be true?
- How could this be true?
- Tish can't be done by him.
may与might

1）表示请求和允许。might比may语气更委婉，而不是过去式。否定回答时可用can’t 或mustn't，表示“不可以，禁止”。
- --- Might / May I smoke in this room?
- --- No, you mustn't.
2）用于祈使句，表示祝愿。May用的比较多。
- May you succeed!
3）表示推测、可能性（不用于疑问句）。might不是过去式，它表示的可能性比may小
- He may / might be very busy now.
must与have to

1）表示必须、必要。在回答引出的问句时，如果是否定的，不能用mustn't（紧张，不准），而用needn't，don't have to（不必）。
- You must come in time.
- --- Must we hand in our exercise books today?
- --- Yes, you must.
- --- No, you don't have to / you needn't/
2）must是说话人的主观看法，而have to则强调客观需要。must只有一般现在时，而have to有更多的时态形式。
- The play isn't interesting. I really must go now.
- I had to work when I was your age.
3）must可以表示表示推测，可能性（只用于肯定的陈述句）。
- You're Tom's good friend, so you must know what he likes best.
- You mother must be waiting for you now.
will与would

1）表示请求、建议等，would更委婉。
- Will / Would you pass me the ball, please?
2）表示意志、愿望和决心。
- I will never do that again.
- They asked him if he would go abroad.
3）would表示过去反复发生的动作或某种倾向。would 表示过去习惯时比used to正式，但没有“现已无此习惯”的含义。
- During the vacation, he would visit me every other day.
- The wound would not heal.
shall

shall除在一般将来时中用于第一人称外，还可用表示征求对方的意见。
- What shell we do this evening?
- Shall I open the window?
should与ought to

should和ought to 表示“应该”，ought to表示义务或责任，比should语气重。
- I should help her because she is in trouble.
- You ought to take care of the baby.
had better

had better结构意为“最好···”，否定句为had better not，疑问句把had放在主语前。这个结构用于指现在或将来，通用于所有人称（had不是过去式）。
- You'd batter leave at once.
- I'd batter go home now.
- You'd better not go by air.
- Had he better start tomorrow?

十七、情态动词_特殊用法

两个特殊的情态动词need和dare。

01. 情态动词need

need意为“有必要”，既可以作为情态动词，也可以作为行为动词。

情态动词：作为助动词用，无人称和时态变化，多用于疑问句和否定句。

1）need后跟动词原形，表示现在有无必要做某事。
- You needn't hurry.
- Need you go so soon?
2）need后跟完成时，表示过去有无必要做某事。
- You needn't have waited for me yesterday.
- Need you have been so angry with him?你当时有必要那么跟他生气吗？
行为动词：有人称和时态变化，否定句和疑问句需借助于助动词do的某种形式。

结构：need + n. /pron. / to do···
- I need your help.
- You don't need to know it. = You needn't know it.

02. 情态动词dare

dare意为“敢于”，既可以作为情态动词，也可以作为行为动词。

情态动词：作为助动词用，无人称变化，多用于疑问句、否定句和条件从句中，过去式dared。
- How dare you say I'm unfair?
- He daren't speak English before such a crowd, dare he?
- If you dare say that again, you'll be sorry.
行为动词：有人称和时态变化，否定句和疑问句需借助于助动词do的某种形式。

结构：dare + n. / pron. / to do···(动词不定式) dare to do 中动词不定式符号to有时候可省去。
- I dare you! 谅你也不敢！
- I dare (to) swim across this river.
- He doesn't dare (to) answer.
- I dare you to do it.

03. must表示推测

must可表示非常肯定的推测，翻译成“一定···”，否定句用can't。

结构：must + 动词原形（多用于be）

He must be a doctor.

He must be ill.

Jane must be at least 40.

He can't be a doctor.

若表示“一定在做某事”，则用：must be doing···
- He must be sleeping.
若表示对过去的推测，结构为：must + have done
- You must have met him yesterday.
若表示对过去的推测，当时动作在进行，则结构为：must + have been doing
- You must have been sleeping when I called you.我给你打电话的时候你一定在睡觉。
- I can't have been sleeping.

04. may/might表推测

may/ might 表推测用法同must（对现在或将来的推测后跟动词原形，对过去的推测后跟完成形式），语气不如must强。

might在此并非may过去式，只是语气比may还要弱。

It may be a cat.
He may be a policeman.
He may have been busy last night.
The may have had dinner.
He may be reading.
The baby may be sleeping.
He may have been reading.
The baby may have been sleeping.

05. 情态动词 + 完成式

could + have done，表示“本来可以做事实上却没有做某事”，是虚拟语气。
- You could have done better , but you didn't try your best.
must + have done，表示对过去的推测，意为“一定···”，否定句用can't，意为“不可能···”。
- He must have come back last night. 肯定
- He can't have come back last night. 否定
may / might + have done，表示对过去的推测，意为“有可能···”，might此处不是过去式，只是表达的语气比may弱。
- He may / might have known the truth.
should + have done和ought to have done，表示“本来该做而事实上却没做某事”。
- You should have told me earlier.
- I ought to have listened to you.
needn't have done，表示“本来不必做某事而事实上却做了”。
- You needn't have watered the flowers, for it is going to rain.

十八、主谓一致

在英语句子里，谓语受主语支配，其动词必须和主语在人称和数上保持一致，这就叫主谓一致。

主谓一致的基本原则是：主语为单数形式，则谓语动词用单数形式；主语为复数形式，则谓语动词用复数形式。

01. 谓语动词用单数的情况

可数名词单数及不可数名词作主语时，谓语动词要用单数。
- The dog is very cute.
- Water is necessary to life.
“more that one + 单数名词”和“many a + 单数名词”做主语时，谓语动词用单数。
- More than one sheep is missing.
- Many a student is not happy about the idea of taking the exam three days earlier.
“a / an + 单数名词 + or two"以及”one and a half + 复数名词“做主语时，尽管从意义上看是复数，但它的谓语动词仍用单数。 #:一两个或者是一个半。
- An hour or two is enough.
- One and a half hours is enough.
注意：”one or two + 复数名词“作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。
- One or two students haven't arrived yet.
某些以s结尾的单数名词，如news，physics、maths等，以及书名，戏剧名，报纸及国家名称做主语时，谓语用单数。
- Physics is a very interesting subject.
- The United States is the place where I want to go.
主语从句，动词不定式，动名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
- Eating is my favorite.
- It's nice to be with you.
- What you said is true.
如果and连接的两个词是指同一个人，同一事物或同一概念，这时两名词虽然由and连接，但只有一个限定词，谓语动词要用单数。
- Bread an butter is their daily food.
- The teacher and writer is her friend.
不定代词anybody，anyone，anything，something，somebody，someone，something，everybody，everyone，everything，nobody，no one，nothing等做主语时，谓语动词用单数。
- Someone is waiting for you in your office.
表示”时间、距离、价格、度量衡“的复数名词做主语时，谓语动词用单数。
- Ten miles is too far away.
- Four hours is enough to do your homework.
one，each，either，neither，anther做主语或修饰主语时，谓语动词用单数。
- Each if the books costs five yuan.
- Neither of my parents is a doctor.
在each··· and each···，every··· and every··· no··· and no···作主语的结构中，谓语动词用单数。
- Each man and each woman is asked to help.
- Every boy and every girl likes to go swimming.
- No teacher an no student was absent from the meeting.
加减乘除做主语用单数。
- One plus one is two.
- fifteen minus five is ten.

02. 谓语动词用复数的情况

表示总称意义的名词people，police，cattle等做主语时谓语动词用复数。
- People are talking about the news.
由两部分构成的物体，如shoes，trousers，gloves，glasses，scissors等名词做主语时，谓语用复数。
- My shoes are under the bed.
但是这些名词前若出现a pair of，谓语一般用单数。
- A pair of glasses is on the desk.
两个单数名词（人或物）用and或both···and连接，做主语时，谓语用复数。
- A hammer and a saw are useful tools.
- Both rice and wheat are grown in this place.
what 引导的主语从句，当它表示复数意义时，谓语动词用复数形式。
- What the boy wanted are some books.
两个或两个以上的主语从句，动词不定式，动名词形式作主语，表示两个或两个以上的概念或意义时，谓语动词用复数。
- Swimming is summer and skating in winter are his greatest pleasures.

03. 特殊用法

主要讲解特殊词及结构作主语时的主谓一致原则：

either··· or，neither··· nor，not only··· but also，not··· but，or连接两个主语时，谓语动词用就近原则。
- Not you but I am wrong.
- He or you have taken my pen.
- Not only the teacher but also the students were invited.
- Not only the students bus also the teacher was invited.
There be句型中be取决靠近它的主语。
- There is a pen and three books on the desk.
- There are 3 books and a pen on the desk.
主语后面跟有with，together with，like，as well as，but，including，besides，in addition to等引起的短语时，谓语动词不受介词之后宾语的影响，仍然跟主语保持一致。
- Mr. Green, together with his wife and children, has come to China.
- Jason, like you and Tom, is very tall.
- Nobody but Jim an Mike was on the playground.
在定语从句时，关系代词that，who，which等作主语时，其谓语动词的数应与句中先行词的数一致。
- I like your friend who comes from Shandong.
- I like your friends who come from Shandong.
如果集体名词指的是整个集体，作主语时谓语动词用单数；如果它指集体的成员，其谓语动词就用复数形式。常见的词有family，class，crowd，committee，population，audience等。
- Class Four is on the third floor.
- Class Four are unable to agree on a monitor.
在倒装句中，谓语动词的数应与其后的主语一致。
- There comes the bus.
- On the wall are many pictures.
- Such is the facts.
- Such are the facts.
单复数同形的名词作主语时，谓语形式要根据句意来确定。（单复数同形的名词有：deer，fish，sheep，Chinese，Japanese,means等）
- The sheep is / are running.
- Not every means is useful
- Not all means are useful.
不定代词 all，more，most，some，any做主语时，谓语动词视情况而定。
- All of the apples are rotten.
- All of the apple is rotten.
none，neither做主语时，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数；但none在代表不可数的东西时总是看作单数，因而谓语动词要用单数。
- None of us are (is) perfect.
- None of this worries me.
”a lot of / lots of / plenty of / a large quantity of + 名词“做主语时，谓语动词与of后面的名词保持一致。
- A lot of people are coming out of the station.
- A lot of time has been wasted.
the rest of，half of，part of，one third of等在句子中加名词作主语的时候，谓语动词与of后面的名词保持一致。
- Half of the students have finished their homework.
两个形容词共同修饰一个单数名词，若两个形容词都带有冠词，作主语时，谓语用复数；若两个形容词前只有一个冠词，表示一个人或物，做主语时，谓语用单数。
- The white and the red coat are mine.
- The black and white cow is sick.
由”a type of, this type of + 名词“ 和 ”名词 + of this type“ 等短语作主语时，谓语动词与of前的名词的数保持一致。（与type同类的词有kind，sort等）
- A new type of machine is on sale now.
- Machines of this new type are made in China.
”the + 形容词或分词“表示一类人时，谓语动词用复数；若表示某一抽象概念，谓语动词用单数。
- The old are taken good care of.
- The beautiful gives pleasure to all.
”one of + 复数名词 + who / that / which“ 引导的定语从句中，定语从句的动词为复数。”the only one of + 复数名词 + who / that. / which“引导的定语从句中，定语从句的动词应该为单数。
- Mary is one of those people who keep pets.
- Mary is the only one of those people who keeps pets.

十九、It的用法

在英语中，It的使用相当广泛，它即可用作代词，也可用作形式主语和形式宾语，还可用用作强调结构中的强调词。

指代事物、物、婴儿或未知的人。
- It happened during my stay in the United States.
- My pen is missing. I can't find it anywhere.
- The frog is not a warm-blooded animal. It is a cold-blooded one.
- I was disappointed with the film. I had expected it to be much better.
指时间、天气、环境、距离、自然现象等。
- --- What's the time?
  
  --- It's half past ten.
- It was a cold winter morning.
- It is rather cold today, isn't it?
- It's dark outside.
- Why is it so noisy in that room?
- --- How far is it from here to the station?
  
  --- It's about two kilometers.
- It is raining hard.
- It did not snow much last winter
作形式主语，当主语的动词不定式、动名词或主语从句时，为了避免头重脚轻，往往把主语后置，而用it作形式主语来指代后面的真实主语。
- Is it necessary to complete the design before National Day?
- In fact, it is a hard job for the police to keep order in an important football match.
- It is not a good habit to stay up late.
- It is no use crying over spilt milk.
- It is a pity that you didn't go to see the movie.
- Has it been decided when we are to hold the sports meeting?
- It is known to all that Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492
作形式宾语，当不定式或that引导的宾语从句在句中作宾语且其后跟有宾语补足语（一般为形容词或名词）时，通常会在原宾语的位置使用形式宾语it，而将真正的宾语移至句末。
- I find it interesting to study English. #: 本来是I find to study English interesting.
- He thinks it his duty to help the girl.
- I find it difficult to work with him.
- I think it very strange that he goes out every night.
注：若宾语补足语是no use / no good / no point / a waste of ... 时，真正宾语习惯上用动名词。
- I think it no use telling them.
- I think it no point staying here an doing nothing at all.
- We think it a waste of time arguing with him
it用在强调结构中，当我们要强调句子的某一部分（通常是主语，宾语或状语）时，常用强调结构。其形式”It is (was) + 被强调部分 + who （that）+ 句子的其他成分“。在这种结构中，it无实际意义，它只帮助改变一个句子的结构，使某一成分受到强调。
- I told her the news at the gate yesterday.
- It was I that told her the news at the gate yesterday.
- It was her that I told the news at the gate yesterday.
用于习惯用语中。
- Take it easy.
- Where does it hurt?
- That is about it.
- as luck would have it.

二十、强调句

01. 概念

当我们要强调句子的某一部分（通常是主语，宾语或状语）时，常用强调结构。其形式为”It is (was) + 被强调部分 + that+ 句子的其他成分“。在这种结构中，it无实际意义，它只帮助改变一个句子的结构，使某一成分受到强调。

02. 使用强调句型要注意的几点

在该强调结构中，it无任何意义但不可以换成this或者that等。”It is (was)···that···“为结构句，假如去掉，剩下部分在语法结构和句子含义上均完整，这一点正是它和定语从句等的本质区别。
- He bought the book in this shop yesterday.
  
  → It was he that bought the book in this shop yesterday.（强调主语he）
  
  → It was the book that he bought in this shop yesterday.（强调宾语the book）
  
  → It was in this shop that he bought the book yesterday.（强调地点状语 in the shop）
  
  →It was yesterday that he bought the book in this shop.（强调时间状语yesterday）
被强调部分指人时，其后除了用that之外，也可用who或whom。强调的是主语时，使用who；强调的是宾语时，使用whom。
- It was he who bought the book in this shop yesterday.
- It was Mary who picked up the wallet.
- It was I who was deceived.
- It was one of my old schoolmates whom I visited yesterday.
- It was Jack whom I met in the park last week.
强调句的时态，一般来说，原句的谓语动词如果是现在或将来各种时态，则用句型”It was ... that(who,whom) ... “。
- It is Smith who is leaving for Beijing tomorrow.
- It is tomorrow that I am going to be back.
- It was only when I reread his poems recently that I began to appreciate their beauty.
在强调时间、地点、原因或方式状语时，不能用when、where、why或how，只用that。
- It was because her mother was ill that she didn't go with us.
- It was in Shanghai that the Chinese Communist Party was founded on July 1, 1921.
注：可用“It is / was because ... that ... ”结构强调because引导的原因状语从句，但不能用该结构强调由since或as引导的原因状语从句。
- It is since everybody is here that let's begin our discussion. F
- It was as it was raining hard that they had to stay at home. F
如何强调”not ··· until“结构，在强调”not ··· until“结构中由until短语（或从句）表示的时间状语时，要用固定的强调句型”It is/was not until ... that ... “，其中that从句中的谓语动词用肯定式。
- He didn't go to bed until / till his wife came back.
  
  → It was not until his wife come back that he went to bed.
注：此句型只用until，不用till。但如果不是强调句型，till/until可通用；因为句型中“It is / was not until... ”已经是否定句，that后面的从句要用肯定句，切勿再用否定句。
- My father did not come home until midnight.
  
  → It was not until midnight that my father came home.
- We didn't know her mother was ill in bed until she came to see us.
  
  →It was not until she came to see us that we knew her mother was ill in bed.
在强调一般疑问句中的某一成分时，主句要用一般疑问句的语序。
- The American astronaut succeeded in landing on the moon in 1969.
  
  → Was it in 1969 that the American astronaut succeeded in landing on the moon？
特殊疑问句中只有特殊疑问词可以强调，其强调结构是：“疑问词 + is / was it + that ... ?”。
- When did you get to know her?
  
  → When was it that you got to know her?
强调句的谓语动词除了可采用现在时和过去时的单数形式外，有时根据需要还可采用复杂的形式。
- It might be John who will take part in the contest on behalf of our class.
- It must be his father that he is looking for.
- It must have been Mary that you saw just now.
强调句结构不可以强调谓语，若强调谓语，在肯定句和祈使句中，在谓语动词前加上助动词do的某种形式以加强语气。只用于一般现在时（do，does）和一般过去时（did）中。
- He came back last night.
  
  →He did come back last night.
- Come in.
  
  → Do come in.

二十一、倒装句

01. 完全倒装

英文中如果谓语在主语前面，就是倒装语序。倒装语序又分为完全倒装和部分倒装。在完全倒装的句子中，整个谓语都放在主语的前面。

here类，当表示地点的here和three位于句首时，其后用完全倒装形式，这类倒装句的谓语通常是动词be，come和go等表示移动或动态的不及物动词。
- Here's Tom
- There's Jim
- Here comes the bus.
- There goes the bell.
- There goes the last train.
注1： there 引出的完全倒装句，除了最常见的there be句型以外，there之后还可以接exist，lie，remain，seem，appear，stand等，构成完全倒装句。
- There appeared a man in black in the distance.
注2：这类倒装句的主语只能是名词，若主语为代词，则不能倒装。
- Here is comes.
- Here you are.
- Here we are.
- There you are.
away类，副词away，down，in，off，out，over，round，up等位于句首时，其后也用完全倒装语序。这类倒装句的谓语通常是表示动态的不及物动词。
- Away went the runners. 不到装：The runners we went away.
- Round and round flew the plane.
- The door opened and in came Mr. Smith.
- Down came the rain and up went the umbrellas.
注：这类倒装句的主语也只能是名词，若主语为代词，则不用倒装。
- Away he went.
- Down it came.
状语或表语类，为了保持句子平衡或使上下文衔接紧密，有时可将状语或表语置于句首，句中主语和谓语完全倒装。
- Among these people was his friend Jim.
- By the window sat a young man with a magazine in his hand.
注1：状语置于句首时，谓语动词若是及物动词则不能用倒装。
- On the hill John saw Mary.
注2：在表语置于句首的这类倒装结构中，要注意其中的谓语应与其后的主语保持一致，而不是与位于句首的表语保持一致。
- In the cage was a cat.
- In the cage were some cats.
非谓语动词类，有时为了强调，可将谓语部分的现在分词、过去分词或不定式置于句首，从而构成倒装。
- Standing beside the table was his wife.
- Buried in the sand was an ancient village.
- To be carefully considered are the following questions.
表示顺序的词置于句首，也要用完全倒装。
- Now comes your turn.
- Next came a horse.
在宾语从句为直接引语的句子里，若全部或部分直接引语位于主句之前常用完全倒装，但也可以用正常语序；若作宾语从句的直接引语置于主句之后用正常语序。
- 'Help! Help!' shouted the boy.（也可以说the boy shouted）
- The boy shouted. 'Help! Help!'.（不可倒装）
- 'I am sure,' said Jack, 'you are right'.（也可以说Jack said）
- Jack said, 'I am sure you are right'.（不到装）
在某些表示祝愿的句子中也用完全倒装语序。
- Long live our great county!
- Long live Chairman Mao!

02. 部分倒装

部分倒装即只把谓语的一部分（如助动词、、情态动词等）放到主语前。

疑问句中，一般需用部分倒装。
- How long have you been here? #: have been
- What do you think about the movie.
- Why doesn't he come here?
注：当对句子的主语提问时，一般不用倒装语序。
- Who did it just now?
- What happened last night?
否定词no，none，neither，nor，nobody，nothing，nowhere，never或半否定词hardly，seldom，scarcely，barely，litter，few，否定词的短语not until，not only··· but also··· ，neither ··· not ···，in no way，under no circumstance，no sooner ··· than ··· ，hardly ··· when ··· 等位于句首时，一般需用部分倒装。
- No longer are they staying with us.
- Under no circumstances will I do such a thing.
- Seldom in all my life have I met such a brave man.
- Nowhere did I go yesterday.
- Not until then did he apologize to his friend.
- 注：until 之后跟从句时，只有主句用倒装，until引导的从句不到装。
  - Not until I got to the station did I realize that I left on of my suitcases home.
- Neither do I know him.
- No word did he say before he left.
- Little did I know about it.
- Not only did he come, but also he brought us good news. #: not only ... but also ... 位于句首引导两个分句时，前一个分句中的主谓要采用部分倒装，第二个分句则不倒装。
  - Not only does he teach in school, but also he writes novels.
  - Not only did she speak correctly, but also she spoke fluently.
- No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill.
- 注：在no sooner ... than ...，hardly/scarcely/barely...when...结构中，只有主句用倒装，从句用正常语序。
  - Hardly had the baby seen the dog when she cried.
  - No sooner had Richard returned home than he was told to o back to work.
often置于句首，需用部分倒装。
- Often do we see each other.
- Often did he come here with a smile on his face.
only置于句首时，一般需用部分倒装。
- Only in the morning can you meet him. 正常语序：You can meet him only in the morning.
- Only when I got there did I know the truth.
注1： Only不在句首时，不可倒装。
- I wrote to him only yesterday.
注2：“Only + 名词/代词" 做主语时，不可倒装。
- Only Lily can answer this question.
so和such置于句首时，需用部分倒装。
- Such an instructive speech did he make that all the listeners were moved.
- So beautiful was the girl that she won the championship in the beauty contest.
- He has been to Dalian and so have I.
- You can swim and so can I.
注：如果一个句子只是重复前面一句话的意思，表示同意对方的看法，表示”是的、确实“之意时，尽管是用so开头，语序也不颠倒。
- --- It was could yesterday. --- So it was.
- --- Tomorrow will be Monday. --- So it will.
if引导的虚拟语气从句部分含有were、should或had时，可省略if，在把were、should或had移到从句的句首，实行部分倒装，这种句式多用于书面语。
- Were they here now, they could help us.
- Had you come a little earlier, you would have met him.
- Should it rain, the crops would be saved.
- Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.
may用来表示祝愿时，一般用部分倒装。
- May you have a good Journey.
- May you succeed.

二十二、省略

在英语中，为了使语言简洁明了，重点突出或上下文紧密相连，可用省去某些句子成分而保持句意不变，这种现象称为省略。

英文中常见的省略现象：

并列句中的省略，一般来讲，并列句中重复的谓语动词可省略。
- Mary was happy, while Jane (was) miserable.
- Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
状语从句中的省略。

如果从句的主语和主句的主句一致，且从句的谓语含有be动词的某种形式（am/is//are/was/were），可同时省略从句的主语和be动词的某种形式。
- Do be careful when (you are) crossing the street.
- While (I was) on my way to work, I met her.
- If (it is) properly treated, waste will do no harm to the environment.
- I'll not go to the party unless (I am) invited.
than和as引导的比较状语从句中的省略。

当不同的主语进行比较时，一般省略从句中的谓语；当从句中的主语与谓语（be动词除外）和主句中的主语与谓语相同时，通常省略从句中的主语和谓语只保留比较部分。
- He is taller than his brother (is).
- Liu Xiang runs faster than I (do).
- I have as mush as confidence in you as (I have confidence) in him.
以if从句为代表的状语从句中的特殊省略用法，通常省略了it is，that is，there is/are。
- if (it is) necessary. this old temple will be rebuilt.
- If (that is) so, I will call you back at 5:00 pm.
- There are only a few books in our school library. if (there are) any.
定语从句中的省略用法。

关系代词that，which，whom等在限制性定语从句中充当宾语且不位于介词之后时，可以省略；in which或that在先行词way后可省略。
- The man (that/who/whom) you visited last night is my grandpa.
- I don't like the way (in which/that) you treat the girl.
不定式符号to的省略。

1）感官动词see，hear，feel，watch等和使役动词have，make，let等后接不定式作宾语时，不定式省略to。
- Aaron, don't make your little sister cry.
2）do nothing but，can't help but等结构常接省略to的不定式。
- We didn't do anything but stay at home watching TV yesterday.
- Hearing the news, she couldn't help but cry.
3）在特定语境中为了避免重复，当不定式再次出现时，在want，wish，hope，try，plan，like，love，hate等后往往只保留to，而省略后面的动词。
- My parents encouraged me to study abroad, but I didn't want to.
注：如果to之后的动词是be，则往往把be带上。
- He doesn't work so hard as he used to.
- He is not so honest as he used to be.
so和not的替代性省略。

用于避免重复前面所说过的内容，替代词so/not替代肯定或否定的名词性从句。可与believe，expect，fear，guess，hope，say，speak，suppose，think，I'm afraid等连用。
- --- Do you suppose he is going to attend the meeting?
- --- I suppose not. (I suppose so.)
- --- Are you available tonight?
- --- I'm afraid not.
虚拟语气中if及should的省略。

1）当条件状语从句中有were，had，should时省略if，把它们提至句首，形成倒装句。
- If I were a teacher, I would be strict with my students. → Were I a teacher, I would be strict with my students.
2）suggest，Insist，require，order等表示建议、要求、命令的动词后接的从句中，谓语动词常用 “should + 动词原形” 结构，should可以省略。
- The doctor suggested that he (should) try to lose weight.
日常交际中的省略。

在情景会话中，答语常常省略不会引起歧义的主语、谓语或宾语部分，而只保留对方希望了解的内容。
- --- How many copies do you want?
- --- (I want) Three copies, please.
- --- Have you ever been to the Great Wall?
- --- No, (I have) never (been to the Great Wall).

二十三、修辞

英语和汉语类似，有很多修辞方式，如明喻、暗喻、拟人、排比、夸张等，如果运用得当，可使语言表达的鲜明而生动。

Simile 明喻

明喻是直接把某一物同与其具有同一性质或特点的另一物相比较，常用的比喻词有as，like，seem，as if，as though等。
- The moon is like a silver coin.
- Childhood is like a swiftly passing dream.
- I wandered lonely like a cloud.
- He talked about the skeleton as if he were talking about an old friend.
Metaphor 暗喻

暗喻是间接地把一物同于其有某种相似点的另一物相比较，不用比喻词。
- The road of life has many turns.
- Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound.
Metonymy 转喻

转喻也叫换喻，即借用于某事物相关或相关联的东西代称其物。
- The kettle boils.
- Gray hairs should be respected.
- From the cradle to the grave.
Synecdoche 提喻

提喻是以某事物的局部表示整体，抽象表示具体，特殊表示一般，或者反之。
- He has five mouths to feed.
- There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in his character.
Personification 拟人

拟人是把非人的事物当作人来写，把人的特点赋予事物或某种抽象概念，用来只适用于人的名词、形容词、动词来描写事物，使其具有人的某些属性。
- The birds are singing an I feel very happy.
- The autumn wind is sighing.
- The gentle breeze caressed my cheeks and soothed my heart.
- The treacherous fox broke his promise an ran way.
下面这些句子也可看作是拟人用法，译成汉语时，有时需要进行主谓转换。
- The 5th century saw the end of the Roman Empire.罗马帝国在五世纪灭亡。
- This old house has seen better days.这座老房子以前挺漂亮的。
- This field has witnessed a battle.这片土地上曾打过仗。
- The noise killed the music.噪声淹没了音乐声。
- Monday morning found Jack miserable.星期一早晨Jack一副可怜相。
Hyperbole 夸张

夸张就是故意夸大事实，给人以深刻的印象，起强调作用。
- Thank you a million.
- When Joey heard the news, he cried his eyes out.
- The joke made me laugh my head off.
Parallelism 排比

排比是用一连串内容相关、结构类似的句子成分或句子来表示强调和一层层的深入。
- Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
Euphemism 委婉语

委婉语即使用委婉词来避免提及刺耳或不愉快的东西。
- Deng Xiaoping passed away in 1997.
- Excuse me, where can I wash my hands?
- Beside me was a large woman with a tight black dress.
Irony 反语

反语即讲反话，故意使用同本意相反的说法。
- How great you are to bully a little girl!
- 'You are so unselfish!' Helen said angrily.
- 'Oh, you are so early！ It's only 11 in the morning.' the teacher said.
Pun 双关

双关是巧妙地利用同意异义或同形异义现象，使同一个词或同一个句子表达两种不同的含义，使之含蓄幽默，一语双关。
- More sun and air for your son and heir.
- We must all hang together or we shall all hang separately.
- --- What do lawyers do when they die?
  
  --- Lie still.
- Stephen hawking is a star scientist.
- --- The professor tapped on his desk and shouted, "Gentlemen, order!"
  
  --- The entire class yelled, "Beer!"
Antithesis 对偶

对偶即两个相同或相似的语言结构的对仗或对照。
- Not that I loved Caesar less but that I loved Rome more.
- You are staying; I am going
- Give me liberty, or give me death.
alliteration 头韵

头韵指在一组词或一行诗中用相同的字母或声韵开头。
- He is all fire and fight.
- They have returned home, safe and sound.

--- Last update 2021.01.22 15点45分

posted on 2020-08-23 07:06 Wizard-Z 阅读(3283) 评论(1) 编辑收藏举报

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