Fallacy
Either / Or(False dichotomy)
Definition:
Reduce complex issues to black and white when they could be gray
Present only two options as being possible when there may be many available.
大意：你认为事件只有两种可能，非黑即白，但可能它是灰
我不一定就是喜欢或者不喜欢，是或者不是
注意“二分”，认为做某一件事情只有好和坏，做了就是好，不做就是坏，并且要关注，他可能是灰，有些东西其实是只有黑和白，所以不是错误二分
Example
“I can tell that you enjoy English class since you are so good at speaking English.”
If you want our country to be safe, we must increase military spending.
I thought you were a good person, but you weren’t at church today.（美国人会去做某事就是一种general rules，这个不算，你只是认为去教堂就是好人，不去教堂就是不好人）
我英语好不一定我就是喜欢上英语课啊
At STU, you are either a student or a teacher.
我还可能是其他职位
Slippery Slope(Ad continuum)
Definition:
Claims that one step will lead to negative results, which will in turn cause more negative results, which will in turn cause even more negative results
从变坏延伸到更坏甚至死亡
从好延伸到超级好
前提不一定成立，前提成立才能滑坡
IF来表示前提
Example
If someone tries marijuana (大麻), he will become addicted and then will try more serious drugs like cocaine and heroin. Then he/she will become addicted to those and eventually die of a drug overdose or AIDS from dirty needles.
If I don’t eat lunch then I might faint on the way to class. When I faint I might hurt my arm. My arm might get infected and I will have to get it cut off.
If I get good grades in university, then I will get a good job after graduation. Then I will have a house and car so that I can marry a pretty girl. My parents will be proud of me and life will be good.
Fear is the path to the dark side. Fear leads to anger, anger leads to hate, and hate leads to suffering. I sense much fear in you.
If you don't do your homework, you'll fail the class, then you won't graduate from school, or get a good job. You’ll become poor and homeless.
每一件事情都只是某一个事情的可能前提，不一定会让他发生
Ad Hominem
Definition: Attacks the opponent rather than the opponent’s position on the issue.
Attacks the character of a person, not the argument.
Example
The editor of Sports. Sports. Go! Magazine says that Lebron James is a wonderful role-model because of James’ stance on important social issues. This seems right for the editor to say because they both have had multiple children out of wedlock.
You're clearly just too young to understand
"This is a female issue. As a man, how can you have an opinion about this?"
不能因为我是女生所以觉得我说的观点全是错的
因为某个人是XX群体，所以它做了XX，所以XX群体果然都是不好的
Faulty Analogy
Definition: Attempt to relate situations that are NOT really similar or that aren’t similar in relevant ways.
强行联系，强行类比
XXX is just like
Example
Children reading badly written books are like children eating candy — it will rot their brains and cause only harm to their mental health.
It has been scientifically proven that people need to drink a certain amount of water every day to keep healthy. Water is a liquid and so is beer. Therefore people should be able to substitute beer for water, drinking as much beer each day as doctors recommend people drink water, in order to keep healthy.
Guns are like hammers — they’re both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers — so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.
为什么他们有关系，是真的有关系么
Post Hoc(False Cause)
Definition: Claims that something that happened later must have been caused by something that happened earlier.
在我之前发生的事情可能和我后面的事情有联系，就直接把前面的事情当成发生这件事情的原因了
和时间有联系的，一个先一个后
Relation ≠ Cause
Example
Friday morning you forget to brush your teeth. Friday afternoon you receive a very high score on your English exam. You decide that every time you take an English exam, you won't brush your teeth!
Instant noodles are bad for your health. There was a guy who ate instant noodles every day and then he died.
rooster crows ≠ sunrise
Roosters crow all the time, and for many reasons!
I sneezed at the same time the power went off. My sneeze did something to make the power go off.
The temperature has dropped this morning, and I also have a headache. The cold weather must be causing my headache.
- 、they hear other roosters crowing
- to show that a certain place in the barnyard is their turf
- to try and assert their authority over another rooster, etc.
Strawman
Definition: Misrepresents a position in order to make it weak or unwanted and then argues against that inaccurate position. Makes your argument more stronger and appreciated.
偷换核心概念让自己胜利，扭曲原来的立场
原来的观点很难打败，你就换了个稻草人过来打
认为他的观点很弱，因为他只不过是XXX，但是这个XXX其实是错误的
Example
People who want to teach sex education in our schools are telling our children it is OK to have sex at an early age with any and everyone.
我们性教育的目的真的是这样么？你只是想佐证你自己的观点
School officials want to open a McDonald’s in 789 building, to offer more options to students. These officials are determined to ruin the health of all STU students.
Biology teacher begins teaching evolution by stating that all things evolve. Student says she just can't accept that humans came from bugs.
Parent: “No dessert until you finish your chicken and vegetables!” Child: “You only love me when I eat.”（我爱不爱你和你吃不吃饭没有关系，不要偷换概念）
- Misrepresentation
- Argues against an inaccurate position
- This statement misrepresents the school officials’ reason for opening the McDonald.
- It creates the false argument that they want to ruin the health of all student
- Maybe, they want to give students more choices
Generalization
Sweeping Generalization
Definiton:
Applies a general rule or statement without considering possible exceptions.
做事情不考虑例外，某一个东西是这个群体，所以他一定又这个属性。
一个人属于某个群体，所以这个人一定会去做什么事，不会考虑例外
Example(SG)
Cars are made in Germany. Toyota is a car. Toyota is made in Germany.
Some people who own guns are murderers. Therefore, all gun-owners are murderers.
You get what you pay for. Therefore, it is better to spend$200 on that t-shirt at that boutique shop, than buy the same one at Marshall's for $29. (这个不是appeal to celebrity因为首先这个不算名言，名言的话肯定会加引号，这只是一种general rules)
因为Toyota是Car这个群体，所以它具有在德国生产这个属性，是不一定成立的
Example:
Student: Where are you going for the National Holiday?
American Teacher: I’m just going to stay home and relax.
Student: Wow! That’s not very American of you!
A sweeping generalization because…
- the student assumes that all Americans overseas like to travel every chance they get and don’t like to stay home (generally true), so thinks this American is also like that.
Hasty Generalization
Definition:
The fallacy of small samples
Taking a fact about a small sample and applying it to a general group.
用小样本来确定群体，注意不是百分比的小，而是数量少
一个人两个人
Example(HG)
While at USC, I met 3 students from India. All 3 of them were vegetarians. I can’t believe everyone from Asia is a vegetarian!
Kevin's grandparents do not know how to use a computer. Kevin thinks that all older people must be computer illiterate.
Christine had a terrible experience with a boyfriend. She decides that all boys are mean.
it takes information about a few Indian students and applies it to all Asian people. The sample of students met is too small to make a statement about all Asians. It’s possible that some Asians eat meat.
Appeal to X
Appeal to Popularity
Definition:
Suggests that something must be true because many people believe it or agree with it.
很多人做，很多人吃就是好的
每个人都说怎么怎么样，所以就可以去这样做
Examples
Everyone says that it's okay to lie as long as you don't get caught.
Appeal to Celebrity
Definition:
Implies that a product, candidate, cause, or idea is good because a popular celebrity endorses it.
名人代言一定是好的
有名的人说的事情都是对的
Examples:
If Beyoncé says Pepsi is the best, then Pepsi is the best drink there is!
Tom Cruise says on TV that Billy Boy Butter is the best tasting butter there is. Tom Cruise is awesome in Mission Impossible! Therefore, Billy Boy Butter is the best tasting butter there is!
Appeal to Tradition/Past/Antiquity
Definition:
Something is right or true because it is old.
传统一定是好的
一些店铺开到现在一定是好吃的
有always，以前都是这样做的
Examples
Gay marriage is wrong because marriage has always been between a man and a woman.
No one in this family has ever been divorced; therefore, you need to work out your marital problems. We don't get divorced!
Appeal to Novelty/Newness
Definition:
Claims that something is right because it’s new or newer than something else.
新事物一定是好的，旧事物一定是不好的
只要是新的版本都是好的
中药不好，因为他是旧的。西药更好，因为他是新的
Examples
Every iPhone commercial for a new version of the product argues that it is superior to the previous version.
The latest version of a specific running shoe will make you faster.
